


WESTERiN 



AGRICULTURE 






J. A.WIDTSOE 

EDITOR 



wyw«lllW tJ H i W«MB8>W »>t 




Class _l___i^1jQ 
Book . //f^Sj 



CQEXRIGIfr DEPOSm 




Contentment and Profit. 



WESTERN 
AGRICULTURE 

J. A. WIDTSOE, Editor 
GEORGE STEWART, Associate Editor 





CO-AUTHORS 


Tracy H. Abell 






G. B. Hendricks 


Byron Alder 






J. C. Hogenson 


E. D. Ball 






L. R. Humphreys 


L. D. Batchelor 






C. N. Jensen 


J. T. Caine 






W. W. McLaughlin 


J. T. Caine, jr. 






William Peterson 


W. E. Carroll 






C. ^'. Porter 


W. S. Drew 






Robert Stewart 


H. J. Frederick 






George Thomas 


J. E. Greaves 






E. G. Titus 


F. S. Harris 






F. L. West 




R. 


B. 


West 



WEBB publishing COMPANY 

ST. PAUL, MINNESOTA 

19 18 



0.^ 



^'^,4> 



Copyright, 1918 
WEBB PUBLISHING COMPANY 

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 



AUG 23 1918 

^Cl.A501523 



PREFACE 

Agriculture has won its place in the educational curricu- 
lum of our land. It is coming to be well understood that the 
body of agricultural truth is now so large and comprehensive, 
and has been so well organized, that it may be used, quite as 
well as any other science, to impart valuable information 
and to discipline the mind. Moreover, the feeling is growing 
that, since agriculture applies, generously, vital facts of 
many sciences, especially in pointing out man's relationship 
to nature and society, instruction in agriculture may well 
be given to all students, irrespective of future life pursuits, 
as a training for good citizenship. The authors of this book 
have kept in mind this view of the value and position of 
agricultural instruction. 

This book is a contribution to the proper teaching of 
agriculture. In the hope that correct facts may be taught 
in their proper agricultural relation, each chapter has been 
written by a trained specialist. Further, since the appli- 
cations of science to agricultural practices must vary ac- 
cording to general climatic conditions, the authors have 
used more especiall}^ the information that characterizes 
agriculture in the western half of the North American con- 
tinent. The editors have attempted to unify the style of 
the different authors and to harmonize the method with sound 
educational doctrine. 

Modern science teaching, and perhaps all teaching, must 
not depend on textbooks alone. Agriculture is fortunate in 
having as its laboratory all of God's out-of-doors. The 
facts presented in this book are supplemented, therefore, 
with an abundance of directions for ]:)ractical work. Par- 
ticular attention is given to the planning of projects, to be 
used with all good agricultural teaching, but especially, at 



6 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

this time, with work conducted under the terms of the Smith- 
Hughes Act. 

The authors and editors are under great obhgation to 
numerous friends, notable among them Dr. E. G. Peterson, 
President of the Utah Agricultural College, for aid in the 
maldng of this book. 

Credit and thanks are acknowledged and extended to 
the following for the illustrations indicated by the figure 
references: To Julien P. Friez & Sons, for figures 21, 22; 
The John Deere Co., for figures 43, 44, 45, 46, 47; The In- 
ternational Harvester Co., for figures 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 
55, 56, 57; The J. I. Case Co., for figure 58; Stark Bros. 
Nursery and Orchard Co., for figures 92, 93, 94; The American 
Jersey Cattle Club, for figure 120; The Holstein-Friesian 
Association of America, for figures 122, 123; The American 
Guernsey Cattle Club, for figure 124; J. W. Clise, for figures 
125, 126; The Brown Swiss Cattle Breeders' Association, for 
figures 127, 128; Bishop Bros, for figures 142, 145; The Am- 
erican Southdown Breeders' Association, for figure 144; The 
American Cheviot Sheep Society, for figure 146; Kerrow & 
Sons, for figure 147; The American Leicester Breeders' Asso- 
ciation, for figure 149; The National Linci^ln Sheep Breed- 
ers' Association, for figure 150; The CreamWy Package Co., 
for figures 178, 179, 180, 182, 183, 184, 185. ^ 

August 1, 1918. THE EDITORS. 



CONTENTS 

HOW CROPS GROW 

Chapter Page 

I The Life History of the Plant 15 

Structure of Seeds, Composition of Seeds, Purpose 
of Seeds, Germination, The Cell, Growth, Flower- 
ing, Organs of the Flower, Fruiting. 

II The Plant in Relation to Temperature and Air 23 

Temperature Relation, Cardinal Temperatures, 
Highest and Lowest Temperatures, Death, Bud Pro- 
tection, Wind Relations, Oxygen Relation, Respir- 
ation. 

m The Plant and Sunshine 28 

Chlorophyll and Photosynthesis, Light Necessary, 
Photosynthesis and Temperature, Transpiration, Res- 
piration, Energy, Sun Source of All Energy. 

IV The Plant and Water 33 

How the Plant Uses Water, Plant Processes and 
Water, Transpiration, Manufacture of Foods, Move- 
ment of Foods, Soil Water, Available Water, Water 
Relation, Plant Communities Favoring Xerophytic 
Formations, Conditions Favoring Mesophytic For- 
mations, Conditions Favoring Hydrophytic Forma- 
tions, Effects on the Form of the- Plant, Water and 
Crops. 

V The Plant and the Soil 41 

Seed, Home of the Plant, Source of Plant Food, Phy- 
sical Condition of the Soil, Function of Roots, How 
a Plant Feeds, Lime Favorable to Legumes, Aeration, 
Temperature, Rotation of Crops. 

VI Microscopic Plants 49 

Size, Organism, Nitrification and Nitrogen- Fixation 
by Bacteria, Industrial Uses, Bacteria and Disease, 
Requirements, Bacteria Harnessed. 

Vn Plants and Animals 55 

What Plants and Animals Have in Common, Depen- 
dence of Animals on Plants, Indestructibility of 
Matter, Limestone, Interdependence of Plants and 
Animals, Polhnation of Flowers, Seed Dissemination, 
Civilization Affected by Crops, How Man Uses 
Plants, Crops and Live Stock on the Farm. 

7 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



THE SOIL 
Chapter Page 

VIII The Weather 61 

Air Pressure, Air Cools When It Rises; Dew and 
Rain, Cause of Winds, Weather Observations, Weath- 
er Bureau Charts, Value of Information, Climate, 
Climate and Man. 

IX Physiographic Forces of the Earth 68 

Classification of Rocks, Rock Formation, Mountain 
Chains, Faults, Elevation of Ocean Beds, Volcanoes, 
Valleys, Streams, Action of Other Forces, Ice, The 
History of the Earth. 

X Geological History of the Intermountain West 75 

Rock, Land Formation, Mountain Growth in the 
West, Valleys, Alkali, Lakes Bonneville and Lalion- 
tan, Lake-Formed Soils. 

XI Soil Formation 80 

Temperature Changes, The Atmosphere, Wind, 
Oxidation, Solvent Action of Water, Running Water, 
Lake Bonneville, Action of Waves, Ice, Plants as 
Soil Builders, Animals as Soil Builders. 

XII Soil Texture and Structure 88 

Soil Types, Soil Texture, Soil Structure, How to 
Modify Soil Structure, Baking of Soils, Soil and 
Subsoil, Influence on Moisture Content, Productivity 
of the Soil. 

XIII Plant Food in Soils 95 

Food Supply, Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen, Nitro- 
gen, Phosphorus, Calcium, Magnesium, Potassium, 
Iron, Sulphur, Summary. 

XIV Fertile Soils 101 

Factors of Crop Production, Virgin Soils Fertile, 
Crop Requirements, Value of Rotation, Barnyard 
Manure, Green Manure, Limestone, Summary. 

DRY-FARMING 

XV The Value of the Rainfall 108 

Quantity of Rainfall, Distribution of Rainfall, Crop 
Yields, Evaporation, Winds, Root Systems, Dry- 
Farming. 

XVI Storing and Saving Soil Water 117 

Water-Holding Capacity of Soils, Downward Move- 
ment of Soil Water, Extent of Water- Storage in Soils, 
Storage for Biennial Cropping, Cultural Methods, 
Water-Loss by Evaporation, Tillage to Reduce 
Evaporation, Loss by Transpiration, Controlling 
the Transpiration. 

XVII Sowing and Caring for Dry-Farm Crops 123 

Soil Preparation, Germination, Sowing the Crop, 
Cultivation, Harvesting, Storing and Marketing, 
Croi)s for the Dry-Farm. 



CONTENTS 



IRRIGATION 



Chapter Page 

XVIII Measurement of Water 128 

Second-Foot, Acre-Foot, Miner's Inch, The Gallon 
Measure, Methods of Measurement, The Current 
Meter, Floats, The Rating Flume, The Weir, Inches 
of Water, Automatic Devices, Kutter's Formula. 

XIX The Quantity of Water to Use 134 

Irrigation a Supplementary Practice, The First Law, 
Spreading Water over Much Land, Water and Crop 
Development and Quality, Quantity of Water to Use. 

XX The Time and Method of Irrigation 140 

Plant Growth and Irrigation, Time of Irrigating 
Short-Season Crops, Time of Irrigating Long-Season 
Crops, Fall and Winter Irrigation, Methods of Irriga- 
tion, Irrigation by Flooding, Furrow Method of Irriga- 
tion, Subirrigation, Permanent Ditches. 

XXI Alkali Soils 146 

Origin, Appearance, Kinds of Alkali, Effects: How 
Alkali Affects Plants, Quantity Injurious to Plants, 
Prevention, Reclaiming Alkali Lands: Use of Gyp- 
sum, Alkali-Resistant Plants, Cultivation, Under- 
drainage. 

XXII Draining Irrigated Lands 154 

Development of Irrigation, The Upper Edges of Wet 
Land, Effect of Surplus Water in Soils, Soil and Sub- 
soils, Wet or Water-Logged Lands Occur, Drainage 
in the United States, Arid vs. Humid Drainage, Soil 
Water Moves, Plans for Drainage Lines and Sys- 
tems, The Depth of Drains, Soil- Water Wells, The 
Kind of Drains, Precautions, Clogging of the Drainage 
System by Roots, Advantages of a Drained Soil. 



FARM MACHINERY 

XXIII Machinery for Plowing and Cultivating 161 

Kinds of Plows, Shares, Plow Bottoms, The Set of 
a Plow, The Sulky Plow, The Two-Way Sulky Plow, 
The Disk Plow, The Subsoil Plow, Traction Engines, 
Disk Harrow, Spike-Tooth Harrow, The Spring-Tooth 
Harrow, Cultivators. 

XXIV Machinery for Seeding and Harvesting 170 

Drills, Mower, Rake, Binder, Header and Combined 
Harvester and Thresher, Hay Stackers, Wagons, Beet 
Digger, Potato Digger, Fanning Mill, Pumps, Power 
on the Farm, The Automobile, Care of Farm Machin- 
ery. 

XXV Grain Crops 181 

Wheat, Corn, Oats, Barley, Rye, Emmer, The Grain 
Sorghums, Buckwheat, Rice. 



10 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



CROPS 
Chapter Page 

XXVI Forage Crops 192 

Alfalfa, The Clovers: Red Clover, Alsike Clover, 
White Clover, Crimson Clover, Sweet Clover, Other 
Legumes: Field Peas, The Cowpea, The Soy Bean, 
Vetch, The Grasses: Timothy, Kentucky Blue Grass, 
Orchard Grass, Smooth Brome Grass, Redtop, Millets. 

XXVII Sugar Beets and Other Roots 201 

Sugar Beets: History, Production, Conditions of 
Growth, Seeding, Thinning, Cultivation, Irrigation, 
Harvesting, Uses, Seed, Rotation, Importance, Other 
Roots: Mangel-Wurzel, Turnips, Rutabagas, Carrots. 

XXVIII Potatoes 208 

The Potato Plant, The Tuber is Not a Seed, The 
Potato Wanted, Good Quahty, Seed Bed, Seed, Cut- 
ting Seed, Planting, Cultivation, Irrigation, Harvest- 
ing, Prices and Markets, Storing, Varieties. 

XXIX Orchard Fruits 217 

Soil, Nursery Stock, Pruning the Young Tree, Prun- 
ing the Mature Tree, Thinning the Fruit, Cultiva- 
tion, Picking and Storing, Varieties of Fruit. 

XXX Small Fruits 233 

Bush Fruit Culture: Soil, Fertilizers, Care of Young 
Plants, Setting the Plants, Soil Management, Prun- 
ing, Propagation, Picking the Fruit, Strawberry 
Culture: Propagation and Culture, Pollination and 
Varieties, Tillage, Irrigation, Picking, Marketing, 
Grape Culture: Varieties. 

XXXI The Vegetable Garden 242 

Size, Hardy Vegetables, Tender Vegetables, Classes 
of Vegetables, Root Crops, Bulb Crops, The Cole 
Crops, The Salad Crops, Solanaceous Crops, Cucur- 
bitaceous Crops, Leguminous Crops, Sweet Corn, 
Perennial Crops, Commercial Gardening. 

XXXII Pastures 253 

Permanent and Temporary Pastures, Quality of 
Pasture, Importance, Wild Plants, Crop Plants, 
Mixed Plants, For Different Animals, Improving 
Pastures, Rotation. 

PLANT ENEMIES 

XXXIII Weeds 262 

What Is a Weed, Injury Done by Weeds, Duration, 
Dissemination, Weed Laws, Extermination, Spraying. 

XXXIV Plant Diseases 270 

Classification, Slime Mold Diseases: Club Root of 
Cabbage, Diseases: Pear Blight, Crown Gall, Fungous 
Diseases : Gooseberry Mildew, Potato Scab, Covered, 
or Stinking, Smut of Wheat, Diseases Caused by 
Flowering Plants : Dodder. 



CONTENTS 



11 



Chapter 
XXXV 



XXXVI 



Page 

Control of Insect Pests 282 

Feeding Habits, Codling Moth, Spraying, Scale In- 
sects, Spraying, Arsenic Bran-Mash, Culture Meth- 
ods. 

ANIMAL PRODUCTION 

Beef Cattle 289 

Meat Production, Beef Types, The Feeder, The Fat 
Animal, The Carcass, Breeds of Beef Cattle: Short- 
horn, Polled Durham, Hereford, Aberdeen- Angus, 
Galloway, Dual-Purpose Type of Cattle: Red Polled, 
Devon. 

XXXVII Dairy Cattle 297 

The Dairy Type: The Udder, Milk Veins, Barrel, 
Chest, Temperament, Conformation, Dairy Bulls, 
Dairy Breeds: The Jersey, The Holstein-Fresian 
Cattle, Guernsey Cattle, Ayshire, Brown Swiss. 

XXXVIII The Horse 313 

History, In General Appearance, Conformation, Ac- 
tion, Types and Breeds of Horses: The Saddle Type, 
The Roadster Type, The Coach, or Carriage, Type, 
The Draft Type. 

XXXIX The Hog 326 

The Lard Type: Breeds, The Berkshire, Poland 
China, The Duroc Jersey, Chester White; The Bacon 
Type: Breeds, The Large Yorkshire, The Tamworth, 
The Hampshire. 

XL Sheep Management 333 

Care and Food, Breed to Select, Conformation, 
Breeding, Ewes, Lambing, Spring Care, Summer 
Care, Feeding Lambs, Winter Care, Care of Ewes, 
Shearing, Dipping Sheep, Dipping Plant. 

XLI Poultry 345 

Choice of Breeds, The Egg Breeds, The Meat Breeds, 
The General Purpose Breeds, The Fancy Breeds, 
Location and Housing, Feeds and Feeding, Incuba- 
tion and Brooding, Marketing. 

XLII The Feeding of Animals 359 

Classes of Food, Water and Dry Matter, Protein, 
Carbohydrates, Fats, Ash, Digestibility, A Good 
Ration, A Balanced Ration, Adaptation to the Ani- 
mal, Palatability, Quality of Product, Economy of 
Ration Used, Feeding the Animal, Horses, Dairy 
Cows, Beef Cattle, Sheep, Hogs. 

XLIII The Care of Animals 370 

Causes of Disease: Confinement in Close Quarters, 
Overfeeding, Poisonous Plants, Bad or Irregular 
Water, Poor Ventilation, Parasites, Germs, The 
Teeth, The Feet, Heredity, Prevention of Disease: 
Grooming, Disinfection, Quarantine, Disposal of 
Carcasses, Accidents and Treatment of Wounds. 



12 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



Chapter 
XLIV 



XLV 



XLVI 



XLVII 



XLVIII 



XLIX 



LI 



LH 



LIII 



AGRICULTURAL MANUFACTURES 

Page 
Sugar and Flour 379 

Sugar: Cane Sugar, Louisiana, Hawaii and Cuba, 
Beet Sugar: History, In the United States, Russia, 
Storage Bins, Removing the Juice, Purifying the 
Juice, Concentration, Sugar Crystals, Flour: Milling . 
of Wheat, Bleaching Agents, Flour Content. 

Milk and Its Products 388 

Milk Secretion, Milk Composition, Fat Percentages, 
Milk Testing, Babcock Test, Cream Separation, The 
Cream Separator, Butter Making, Cheese Making. 

FARM BUILDINGS 

Dwelling Houses 401 

Cost of House, Planning the House, Location, Ex- 
posure, Arrangement of Rooms, Conveniences, What 
Rooms to Have, Lighting, Heating. 

Farm Buildings 407 

Layout, Site, Barns, Barn Fixtures, Hog Houses, 
Poultry Houses, Silos. 

MISCELLANEOUS 

Improvement of Plants and Animals 414 

Mendel's Law, The Ideal Sought, Basis of Selection, 
Hereditary Power, Transmission of' Characters, How 
Improvement Comes, Practical Applications. 

Light and Water Supply 423 

Light: The Eye-Strain, Bacteria, Artificial Light, 
Water: Hard and Soft Water, Bacteria in Water, 
Sources of Water, Purification of Water. 

Good Roads and the Telephone 429 

Roads: History, Traction Factors, What a Horse 
Can Do, Types of Roads, Earth Roads, Gravel Roads, 
Macadam Roads, Concrete Roads, Sand-Clay Roads, 
The Telephone: Mechanism of the Telephone. 

The Farm Community 436 

Problems of Rural Communities, Rural Depopula- 
tion, Causes of Rural Migration, Rural Recreation, 
Rural Health and Sanitation, The Rural School, The 
Country Church. 

Marketing Farm Products 446 

Specialization in Agriculture, The Middleman, 
Marketing of Farm Crops, Co-operative Marketing, 
Farmers' Associations, Organization, Stock-Holding, 
Obligation of Growers, The Manager. 

The Farm Home 453 

Home Furniture, Home Art, Home Reading, Home 
Food, Cost of Foods, Home Amusements, Health, 
Adjustment to Duties, Home Finances, Home Rights. 



^^ Green are the waiting fields of toil^ 

With wild flowers blossoming and sweet, 
The living wealth no thief can spoil, 
The boundless treasures of the soil, 
Poured in profusion at our feet.'' 



Western Agriculture 





CHAPTER I 

THE LIFE HISTORY OF THE PLANT 

The plan4) has various stages through which it passes 
from the germination of the dormant seed to maturity. 
These various stages in any common flowering plant consist 
of (1) the dormant seed, (2) germination, (3) growth, (4) 
flowering, and (5) fruiting. The hfe history of a plant may 
last but a few weeks or for years and even centuries. 

Structure of 
Seeds. 'The seed 
is a miniature plant, 
or embryo, with some 
accessory parts, in a 
resting, or dormant, 
condition and cap- 
able, under suitable 
conditions, of repro- 
ducing the kind of 
plant which bore it." 
The embryo consists 
of three parts: (1) 
the young bud, (2) 
the seed leaves, or 
cotyledons, and (3) 
the young stem. It 
may constitute all 
or only a very smaU part of the seed, depending solely 
upon the kind of plant from which the seed came. The 
accessory parts of the seed constitute the seed coats and the 

15 



Figure 1. — A, longitudinal section through a corn 
seed, with embryo lying in endosperm (seen 
flatwise) ; B, longitudinal section through seed 
and embryo (seen in profile); C, embryo re- 
moved, showing (1) cotyledon, (2) plumule, (3) 
hypocotyl. (Lauritzen.) 




tyl; G, plumule. 



rapl 

, coty 

(Lauritzen.) 



B, chaiaza; C, 



Figure 2. — Bean seed: A, .^t...^, ^, ~-.~- , -. 

hilum; D, micropyle; E, cotyledon; F, hypoco- 



16 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

food material enclosed within them and surrounding the 
embryo. In some instances, ho.wever, as already mentioned, 
all the food material is stored within the cotyledons and in 
such cases the embryo is enclosed within the seed coats. 
The accessory parts then serve mainly as protection for the 
embryo, until it becomes estabUshed for itself in the soil. 

Composition of Seeds. The food material in seeds, aside 
from water, commonly belongs to four groups: (1) the car- 
bohydrates, (2) proteins, (3) oils, and (4) mineral matter. 
The carbohydrates, such substances as sugars and starches, 
are made up of the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen 
in various combinations. Proteins are compounds which 
contain nitrogen in addition to these three elements and 
sometimes phosphorus and sulphur. Their presence can be 
detected by adding a small quantity of nitric acid to por- 
tions of the tissue and then heating. A pale yellow color 
appears. Rinse in water, add a little ammonia and a deep 
orange color will appear. Oils are very complex compounds 
and are often detected in plants by the use of an acid called 
osmic acid, which colors them brownish or brownish black. 
Mineral matter consists of such inorganic substances as 
iron, sulphur, and phosphorus. 

Purpose of Seeds. Seeds serve a triple purpose: (1) 
continuation, (2) multiplication, and (3) distribution of the 
plant. They are especially adapted for continuation of the 
plant from year to year. Being dry, they withstand much 
better than the green, tender parts all conditions which cause 
death. Every plant is struggling with every other plant for 
space, food and light. The more plants of a particular 
kind in a given locality, the better their chance of success; 
hence, the value of producing many seeds to insure the 
gaining of a foothold for continuation and multiplication. 
Distribution is also closely coupled with these problems. 
Since a plant is a living, growing thing, food is required 
to sustain its life and vital activities. The problem of this 



LIFE HISTORY OF THE PLANT 17 

food supply is, therefore, rendered less difficult by the dis- 
semination of the seeds to new fields. 

Germination. It is very important to remember that, 
although the seed is dry, the embryo is alive and is in a rest- 
ing, or dormant, state. With proper conditions at the com- 
pletion of the rest period, it awakes from its sleep and grows. 
This awakening and growing is known as germination. 

The conditions essential to germination may be properly 
classified as internal and external. The internal are those 
which favor within the seed the production of substances 
called ferments, or enzymes, which change the composition 
of the insoluble material (the stored-up foods), such as 
starches, proteins, and oils, into soluble form. The external 
conditions are suitable temperature and proper amounts of 
water, together with a plentiful supply of oxygen. Some 
seeds will germinate immediately after production; others 
require a resting period before internal conditions permit 
germination — even though external factors are suitable. 

When the conditions for germination are supplied at the 
proper time, the seed absorbs water and swells. The young 
plant begins to respire, or breathe, more freely than it has 
been doing while in the dormant condition; hence the neces- 
sity of a plentiful supply of oxygen. During the processes 
of respiration, oxygen is consumed and carbon dioxide is 
liberated. The stored foods are made soluble to supply the 
demands of the growing embryo. Certain changes in form 
now come about in the young plant. 

The miniature stem and bud elongate, pushing' their way 
through the seed coats into the soil. The stem forms roots 
at its lower extremity. If the portion of the stem above 
the roots and below the cotyledons continues to elongate, 
the cotyledons may be lifted or pushed out of the soil. If 
it does not continue to elongate after the roots are formed, 
the cotyledons remain buried. One part of the stem elevates 
the bud into the air where its leaves expand. When these 

2— 



18 



WEi:i TERN A GRIC ULTURE 




Figure 3. — A, corn seedling, show- 
ing manner of f,ermi nation; B, 
bean seedling in process of germi- 
nation. 



first true leaves have expanded, 
the plant is ready to shift for 
itself and germination is said to 
be completed. 

The Cell. To understand 
how germination phenomena 
take place, it is essential to know 
that the plant is made up of a 
number of small parts, or units, 
called cells. If any part of the 
plant were very highly magni- 
fied, these cells would appear as 
closed boxes or compartments. That which corresponds to 
the walls of the box is the cell-wall. This encloses a sub- 
stance called cytoplasm, which resembles the white of an egg. 
Within the cytoplasm lie the heavier nucleus and other 
bodies known as plastids, and surrounding it is a membrane 
known as the plasma membrane. All these parts enclosed 
by the cell-wall are alive and constitute the only living parts 
of the plant. The cell-wall is not alive, but is made from 
the cytoplasm. 

Growth. Growth and development 
of the plant have to do with change 
of the cells. The cell increases in 
size and finally divides to form two 
new cells. These may divide again 
and again as long as the plant lives. 
Size depends, then, on the increase 
in the number of cells as well as their 
enlargement. 

All parts of the plant are not 
ahke. There are the stems, buds, 
leaves, and roots — different parts 
known to everyone. Any part, for ^f cyt^^i^slIir^Nr'n^: 
instance the leaf, examined carefully ceir-waiL* (Lau"r?tzln.r' 




LIFE HISTORY OF THE PLANT 



19 




under a microscope is seen to con- 
sist of cells of various shapes 
and sizes. Likewise, any part of 
the stem, bud or root, will show a 
difference in the form of the cells: 
Thus, along with growth, which 
is due to an increase in the number 
and size of cells, comes a devel- 
opment called differentiation, 
which is due to a change in the 
shape and in the arrangement 
of cells according to the work 
they do. 

The production of new cells is 
limited to rather definite areas in 
the flowering plant. In the stem, 
it is limited to the region of the 
very tip and to a ring between 
the bark and the wood. In the 
root, active division occurs just back of the tip, which is 
called the rootcap. The region of elongation extends beyond 
the region of active division of cells for some distance. As 
a result of these growth processes a. plant is produced 
which finally flowers and fruits. 

Flowering. The function 
of a flower is the production of 
fruit, which contains the seed. 
Flowers are of various colors 
and shapes — some gorgeous 
and showy; others plain and 
simple. Some a j-e borne singly ; 
others in clusters; but, what- 
ever the difference is, they all 

have the same function to per- Figure 6.— Diagrammatic section of 
- ,, 1 i- r 1 flower, showing: A. petal; B, sta- 

form the production OI seed. men;C,pistil; D.sepal. (Richards.) 



Figure 5. — Longitudinal section of 
root tip, showing: A, epidermis; 
B, root hair; C, interniediate 
layer between epidermis and 
central cylinder E; D, endoder- 
mis; F, growing region; G, root- 
cap. (.Richards.) 




20 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



The organs of the flower are either essential or nones- 
sential. The essential organs consist of stamens and pistils^ 
which are located in the central part of the flower. The 
stamen consists of filament and anther. The anther bears 
the pollen grains which contain the 
male sexual cells (male gametes); the 
pistil consists of stigma, style, and 
ovule sac. The stigma is the upper 
part of the pistil, and secretes a sticky 
substance which causes pollen grains 
to stick to it. The style is the middle 
portion. The lower swollen part of 
the pistil is the ovule sac, which con- 
tains the ovules. Within the ovule the 
female sexual cell is produced in a little 
sac which is called the embryo sac. It 
is usually necessary that these male 
and female ceils unite in order to pro- 
duce the seed. The pollen grain is 
transferred by some agent to the stig- 
ma, where it germinates and grows 
down through the style into the ovule, 
carrying the male gamete with it. A 
union between the gametes now takes 
place. This union of the gametes is 
known a^ fertilization, while the trans- 
fer of pollen to the stigma is known as pollination. 

The nonessential organs of the flower are usually called 
floral envelopes and are the corolla and calyx. The latter, 
which is the outer one, is usually green, while the corolla, 
the inner, is usually highly colored. These floral envelopes 
are called nonessential, because they are not necessary to 
produce a new seed. 

Fruiting. After fertilization has taken place, the fer- 
tihzed cell grows into the embryo. One of the other cells 




Figure 7. — Diagram of pis- 
til, showing: A, pollen 
tube growing down 
through style; B, three 
antipodal cells in em- 
bryo sac; C, fusion nu- 
cleus which grows into 
endosperm; D, egg 
(center) and two syn- 
dergids (helpers) in em- 
bryo sac; E, mycropyle. 
(Lauritzen.) 



LIFE HISTORY OF THE PLANT 21 

within the sac, together with the other parts of the young 
ovule, grows into the accessory parts of the seed and the 
seed coats. After maturity of the seed, it passes into the 
dormant condition to await the time when it can spring 
into renewed activity and produce a plant which may pass 
through the same stages that have just been described. 

The flowering and fruiting stages of some plants occur 
during the first year; in others, during the second. Still 
other plants require more than two years in which to pro- 
duce flowers and fruit. These usually continue to produce 
seeds year after year before dying. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is a seed? 

2. Name the parts of a seed. 

3. Give the composition of a seed. 

4. What purposes do seeds serve? 

5. Describe germination. 

6. Give conditions favorable to it. 

7. Describe a cell. 

8. How does growth take place? 

9. Describe a flower, stating use and value of each part and of the 

whole flower. 
10. Name and state the principal point in each stage of the life of 
flowering plants. 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. Secure seeds of corn, peanut, bean, and squash. Note the external 

appearance of each kind of seed; cut longitudinal sections of the 
corn; open the two halves of the peanut, bean, and squash. In 
each case find (a) stored-up food; (b) cotyledons; (c) the young 
bud; (d) the young root; (e) note the position of the embryo 
in each case, the location of the stored-up food and the nature 
of the seed covering. 

2. Secure bean or squash seeds. Test them for germination as follows : 

(a) Entirely cover twenty-five seeds with water. 

(b) Partly submerge another twenty-five seeds, keeping the 

micropyle end above water. 

(c) Using another twenty-five seeds put them on absorbent 

cotton moistened with water and cover with a plate. 
Note results after two, four and six days. 



22 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

3. Place three other sets of twenty-five seeds on moist cotton as 

called for in (c). Put one of these lots at freezing temperature; 
put another in an oven at 100° C; and keep the third at or- 
dinary temperature as a check. Note results after two days; 
four days; six days. 

4. Use a pea that has germinated and has a root about an inch long. 

With India ink mark off spaces of He of an inch. Pin to a cork 
and float in a pan of water. After twenty-four hours, and 
again after forty-eight hours, note the distance between the 
marks. Where has growth taken place? Do the same to the 
stem and find out in what region growth has taken place in the 
stem. 

REFERENCES 

Practical Course in Botany, Andrews. 
Botany, — An Elementary Textbook, Bailey. 
Practical Botany, Bergen and Caldwell. 
The Living Plant, Ganong. 
Plants and Their Uses, Sargent. 
Introduction to Botany, Stevens. 
Experiments with Plants, Osterhout. 
Principles of Agronomy, Harris and Stewart. 
U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bulletins: 

No. 157. The Propagation of Plants. 
195. Annual Flowering Plants. 



CHAPTER II 

THE PLANT IN RELATION TO TEMPERATURE AND 

AIR 

The plant, like any other Uving thing, is influenced by 
its surroundings. Certain factors directly or indirectly are 
always at work determining whether the plant shall survive 
or perish. In considering any one of these factors it must 
be remembered that others are at work at the same time. 
The principal factors to be noted now are temperature, wind, 
and oxygen. Carbon dioxide, water and light will be studied 
in the following chapters. 

Temperattire Relation. In passing from tropical to 
frigid regions, the vegetation also changes, principally as a 
result of change of temperature. The earth is divided into 
zones, each of which has vegetation differing from that of 
any other, but it is not necessary to study the whole world 
to see the effect of temperature on the plant. 

We all know that in the warm days of spring, when the 
peach tree has finished its winter rest, it starts growth anew 
and bursts quickly into bloom. Following this warm spring 
period, a freeze may ensue and the flowers be frozen, causing 
an entire loss of the peach crop for that year. The same 
injury often happens to many of the other fruits, such as 
pears, apples, plums, cherries, strawberries, and raspberries. 
Every one has seen lucern and potatoes frozen in the fall. 
Thus slight changes in temperature may affect the plant, 
determining whether it shall succeed or perish. 

Cardinal Temperatures. Critical temperatures recog- 
nized for plants are maximum, optimum, and minimum. 
The maximum and minimum are the highest and lowest 
temperatures, respectively, at which growth takes place. 

23 



24 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



The optimum is not so definite as the other two — that is, 
it embraces a greater range of temperature. It is that 
temperature at which the plant makes the best growth. 
Every phase of the plant, such as flowering, fruiting, or ger- 
mination has its own critical temperatures. They are called 
cardinal temperatures. The following table shows these car- 
dinal points for a number of our common cultivated plants. 
It is seen that these temperatures often differ. 





Table I.— Cardinal Temperatures for Growth 

Degrees Fahrenheit* 






Minimum 


Optimum 


Maximum 


Oats 


0- 40.6 

0- 40.6 

0- 40.6 

0- 50.6 

40.6- 50.9 

50.9- 60.1 

60.1- 65.3 

60.1- 65.3 


77- 87.8 

77- 87.8 

77- 87.8 

77- 87.8 

98.6-111.2 

98.6-111.2 

87.8- 96.8 

87.8-100.4 


98.6-111.2 


Rye 


111.2-122 


Wheat 


87.8- 98.6 


Barley 


87.8- 98.6 


Corn 


111.2-122 


PumDkins 


111.2-122 


Melon 


111.2-122 




111.2-122 







*B. M. Duggar, Plant Physiology, Page 403. 1911. 



The limits of temperature depend upon the particular 
kind of plant and the amount of water it contains. The 
more water in a plant, the more easily affected it is by high 
or low temperature. The less water in a plant the more 
resistant it is. To state these facts briefly, we often use the 
following expression: ''SusceptibiUty to temperature is in- 
versely proportional to the water contained in the plant." 

Highest and Lowest Temperatures ; Death. Some plants 
are killed at 113 degrees Fahrenheit, but more can bear heat 
up to 122 degrees Fahrenheit. There are still other plants 
that can withstand a temperature near the boiling point of 
water, as some of the pond scums and bacteria. Even 
boiling for a short time will not kill some of these. What 
causes death at high temperature is not definitely known. 
But the death of a plant by cold may be explained in either 
of two ways: (1) the freezing is a drying out process; that 



PLANT RELATIONS TO TEMPERATURE AND AIR 25 

is, the water in the cell is withdrawn below that required for 
growth activity; or (2), the living parts of the cell may be 
killed on account of the sensitiveness of the protoplasm. 
This latter reason may account for a plant's dying from cold, 
although the freezing point has not been reached. Again, 
other plants may not die until very low temperatures are 
attained. Some plants flower at 40 degrees below zero. 

Bud Protection. Most of us have pulled buds apart. 
Some are very sticky, because they have a covering of rosin ; 
others are hairy, and nearly all are covered with scales. 
The rosin, scales, and hairs are provisions of nature for the 
protection of buds during the winter. They are not a pro- 
tection from extreme cold so much as from drying and from 
sudden changes of temperature. These contrivances serve 
their purposes effectively. 

Wind Relations. The wind is a factor which emphasizes 
greatly all other factors, especially any factor which is 
working unfavorably. As illustration, it may be noted that 
in a region already dry, the dry wind increases the dryness 
by increasing evaporation. When cold conditions prevail, 
the cold is augmented by cold winds. Plants have greater 
difficulty, therefore, in withstanding cold in regions in which 
cold winds prevail. Warm periods are likely to cause in- 
jury when they are accompanied by dry winds. On the 
other hand, free air drainage prevents freezing by moving 
cold air away. Calm places are called cold pockets. 

Wind is sometimes an important hindrance to man, in 
the dissemination of weeds and obnoxious plants. Wind is, 
however, valuable to vegetation in bringing new supplies of 
carbon dioxide to the plant, and in transferring pollen from 
one part of a plant to another, or from one plant to another. 
This wind transportation of pollen is an absolute necessity 
with such plants as corn, box elder, pine, and cedar. 

Oxygen Relation. Plants as well as animals require 
oxygen. While most plants obtain it directly from the air, 



26 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 




a few may obtain it indirectly through the breaking down of 
substances which contain it. The process deahng with the 
consumption of oxygen is known as respiration. 

Respiration. Respiration in plants and animals is alike, 
if we exclude the process whereby the oxygen is taken in. 

In plants, air con- 
t a i n i n g oxygen 
passes in through 
the stomata and 
lenticels (special 
openings through the 
bark) and then 
through small spaces 
between the cells to 
the places where it is 
needed. In animals 
air passes through 
the respiratory 
organs, the last of 
which is the lungs, and through these into the blood, 
which carries it to the cells in the various tissues of the 
body. It is to be remembered that it is in the living cells, 
whether in plant or animal, that the process of respiration 
takes place. Respiration, in more detail, is a process 
whereby the consumed oxygen sets up a long, complex 
series of changes in the substances of a cell. Accompany- 
ing these changes, energy is released. This energy 
causes growth and development and keeps up all those 
processes accompanying the manifestation of life. With- 
out this energy, the plants are unable to sustain them- 
selves and must die. Wherever respiration occurs, the 
oxygen of the air is decreased, the carbon dioxide is in- 
creased, and heat is released. The thing of fundamental 
importance, however, is that energy, which is absolutely 
necessary for the maintenance of life, is released. 



Figure 8. — Cross-section of portion of leaf, show- 
ing: A, stem air chamber; E, epidermis; F, fi- 
brovascular bundle; P, palisade cells; S, air 
spaces; St, stomata. (Richards.) 



PLANT RELATIONS TO TEMPERATURE AND AIR 27 

QUESTIONS 

1. Name the principal factors determining plant growth. 

2. Show how temperature affects plants. 

3. What temperatures can plants endure? 

4. What is death? 

5. How are buds protected against cold? 

6. How are wind and frost related? 

7. What is respiration? Describe it in plants. 

8. From where do plants get energy for their life processes? 

9. Why is oxygen so important? 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. If a microscope is available, make thin cross-sections of a geranium 

leaf by cuttmg with a sharp knife or razor. The leaf is best 
held between the pieces of a split cork or in paraffin. Mount in 
a drop of water on a slide and examine under the microscope. 
Note the small box-like structures. These are cells. Note dif- 
ferent shapes of cells. Make an outline drawing and label. 

2. After the first frost in the fall take a field trip eithef to the moun- 

tains or the cultivated fields. Note the effect of frost on vege- 
tation. Is it the same on all kinds of plant life? Is the entire 
plant killed in all cases? If not, why? Observe at least ten 
kinds of plants and tabulate your observation, giving result 
of the frost on each plant observed. What is the effect of the 
frost in different parts of the fields? Can you see any effect 
from topography of the land? In wet and dry soils? Write 
in detail the observations you made on this trip. 

3. In a field study note what is happening to some of the seeds through 

the agency of wind. Note the devices on such seeds as the 
dandelion, milkweed, willow herb, thistle, box elder, etc., which 
enable the wind to scatter them Report the names of all the 
plants that you find dependent upon wind for seed dispersal. 
Make a collection of such seeds. 

REFERENCES 

Practical Course in Botany, Andrews. 
Botany, An Elementary Text-book, Bailey. 
Practical Botany, Bergen and Caldwell. 
Agronomy, Clute. 
The Living Plant, Ganong. 
Introduction to Botany, Stevens. 



CHAPTER III 
THE PLANT AND SUNSHINE 

Persons of wealth feel they are self-sufficient and in- 
dependent, but it is easily proved that they are not. The 
work, genius, and exertion of former generations, often 
produced with great sacrifice, minister to their comfort. 
With the modern division of labor, products and services are 
exchanged and they are indebted to public institutions, 
such as libraries, schools, and churches. They are thus not 
only dependent on one another, on society, and former 
generations, but are, as members of the animal kingdom, 
dependent on plants either directly by using them as food or 
indirectly through eating animals, which in turn eat plants. 
Plants, however, procure their food from dead or mineral 
matter by means of sunlight. Thus all life is dependent upon 
the silent work that the leaves of plants are continually 
carrying on with the aid of sunlight. 

Chlorophyll and Photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide, water, 
and some of the material from the soil that the soil water 
has dissolved, are used by plants. This solid material must 
exist in solution in soil, if plants are to grow in it, as ex- 
plained elsewhere, or else be provided as fertilizer. The 
water containing this material soaks through the thin walls 
of the little root hairs and travels up through the trunk, 
stem, and leaf veins out into the leaves. There is a green 
substance called chlorophyll in nearly all common plants 
except mushrooms. This green material is in the plant only 
in the part exposed to sunlight and is formed as the result 
of the action of light when oxygen and iron are present. 
It is a tool for making sugar and starches from the carbon 
dioxide gas that the leaf has obtained from the atmosphere 

28 



THE PLANT AND SUNSHINE 



29 



and from the solution taken up by the roots. Associated 
with this transformation of carbon dioxide and water into 
sugar and starch is the storage of large quantities of heat 
and Hght energy to be utilized later. The carbon dioxide 
is consumed and oxygen liberated. This operation is called 
photosynthesis, or carbon assimilation. The leaves are very 
thin and have a maximum of surface exposed to the sun- 
light. Photosynthesis is of the greatest importance, since 
directly or indirectly all plants and animals depend on it for 
their food supply. 

Light Necessary. The Hght of the interior of ordmary 
rooms is insufficient for the vigorous growth of most plants. 
The rate of carbon assimilation increases with the illumma- 
tion up to a light intensity equal to that of full sunlight. 
Sunlight can readily be shown to be composed of many 
colors by allowing a narrow beam to pass through a glass 
prism when a colored band resembling the rainbow and 
called a spectrum will be formed. It has been shown, by 
growing plants under glass of different colors, that the yel- 
low and orange light are most effective and the blue and 
violet least effective in making the starches and sugars from 
carbon dioxide and water. The chlorophyll, of course, helps. 
Photosynthesis and Temperature. Some arctic plants 
can perform this work at temperatures as low as the freez- 
ing point of water, but plants of warmer climates require a 
higher temperature. The rate of photosynthesis usually 
increases with rise of temperature up to about 77 degrees 
Fahrenheit (25 degrees Centigrade) after which it decreases. 
Transpiration. There are on the leaves thousands of 
minute openings called stomata, that lead into small an^ 
chambers, the thin walls of which are kept moist by the 
juices next to them. An interchange of gases may take 
place through these walls and also through the openings to 
the outside. As aheady mentioned, plants, through their 
roots, are continually absorbing water, only an insignificant 



30 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

amount of which is used in photosynthesis. A good deal of 
it is useful in carrying the soluble plant foods to the growing 
parts, but there always remains a large part to be thrown 
off. The process of giving off water from the stomata of 
plants is called transpiration. The air inside the chambers 
is supplied with water vapor l^y the evaporation from the 
moist walls. This moisture escapes through the stomata. 
The rate is determined ])y the size of the opening which in 
turn is regulated by the so-called guard cells that are on the 
sides of the openings. When plants wilt, because the weather 
is warm, the air dry, or the wind blowing, the openings be- 
come small to prevent loss of too much water. Conversely, 
they are opened in damp weather and sunlight, if the plant 
is fresh and vigorous. 

Respiration. Plants breathe very much as animals do. 
In the lungs of animals oxygen is absorl^ed from the air, and 
carbon dioxide together with moisture is returned to the air. 
The same thing happens in the little air chambers mentioned 
above, the oxygen entering the stomata and then the thin 
moist wall surrounding the chamber. Carbon dioxide 
together with moisture is emitted. Plants are found to 
suffocate without fresh aii*. During the day much more 
oxygen is given off as a result of photosynthesis than is used 
in respiration; hence, oxygen is thrown off in greater excess 
than carbon dioxide, so that plants are said to purify the air. 
At night no carbon assimilation takes place; then the res- 
piration depletes the air of its oxygen and tends to make it 
unfit for animals. 

Coal, coke, and graphite are forms of carbon, and wood is 
about half carbon as shown in its blackening or charring 
when heated. If these are burned, some oxygen unites with 
the carbon and forms an invisi])le gas called carbon dioxide. 
In this way nearly all the carbon goes up the chimney in the 
form of gas and is later, when taken in by plants, deposited 
again in the plant. A plant or an animal will burn almost 



THE PLANT AND SUNSHINE 31 



completely, leaving but a small amount of ash. This is 
mineral that was brought up into the plant by the soil 
water. It is not known just how the process of burning is 
made to take place at moderate temperature in plants and 
animals, but it is a fact that slow burning is always going 
on. This burning is much faster in animals than plants, 
tor animals must not only do work besides performing their 
normal life processes, but the body of the warm-blooded 
animal is kept at a fairly constant temperature considerably 
above that of the surrounding air, throughout the year. 

Energy. Fire must have a good draught; so must living 
things have plenty of oxygen. Living things must have fuel 
as must the fire. Man and beast become weak and cannot 
work without food. Like animals, the plants are dependent 
on the union of oxygen with other substances in their tissues 
for the energy with which they perform the work of manufac- 
turing their food, and for doing the work of growth, trans- 
piration, and reproduction. 

Sun, Source of All Energy. This energy that is used by 
the animal in living, keeping warm, and working, is stored 
in the food which comes from the plant. The plant takes 
the light and heat from the sun and stores them up; there- 
fore, heat and work come ultimately from the sun. Not 
only so, but every other form of energy that man has at his 
disposal comes from the sun. Steam engines obtain their 
energy from the coal composed of plants that were subjected 
to great pressure without free access of air. The fuel for gas 
and oil engines comes from the same source. Electric 
dynamos, if not run by steam engines or gas engines, are 
run by water power, but the sun raises the water as vapor 
to the clouds from which it falls as rain. Running down 
mountain sides, streams communicate motion to machinery 
that generates the electric power. Thus, all electric power 
comes from the sun and even the work done by the wind 
through the windmill is from the same source, since winds 



32 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

are caused by the unequal heating of the surface of the earth. 
Thus we can come back to the beginning and say again 
that all things and all creatures are mutually dependent. 
Man is dependent upon his fellows in the social order. 
Animals are dependent on plants, and plants on sunlight 
and mineral matter. Truly all life depends on the sun; 
and, still more briefly, we may say — No light, no life. There 
was some excuse for primitive peoples' worship of the sun. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Wherein is man dependent on other men? On nature? 

2. What is chlorophyll? 

3. Describe its work, showing its importance and its relationship to 

sunshine. 

4. Describe transpiration. 

5. How are food manufacture and respiration related? 
G. Why must all living things have food? 

7. Show wherein the sun is the source of all life. 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. Cover a healthy house plant with black paper in such a way that 

it is not badly crowded. Fasten the paper at base of stem. 
Put in a dark room at ordinary temperature. Give it a half 
cupful of water each day. Examine it in a week; two weeks; 
three weeks. 

2. Put a clean glass jar over a healthy geranium. Be careful not 

to break many leaves. Note results at end of one or two 
hours. Explain. 

3. Secure a dozen medium-sized potatoes. Sprout by keeping in a 

warm place for two or three weeks. Some should be sprouted 
in the dark and some in the light. Explain results. 

4. Visit a library to find an illustrated article on famine in some 

magazine. Why do starving persons become weak and thin? 

REFERENCES 

Any textbook in botany. 

Physics of Agriculture, King. 

The Soil, King. 

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. II. 

Irrigation and Drainage, King. 

Mechanism of Nature, Ehlers. 



CHAPTER IV 
THE PLANT AND WATER 

Wherever plants thrive, all the conditions necessary to 
vegetable life are sure to be found. Wherever plants are 
scarce, entirely absent, or scrawny, something is wrong with 
the environment. Proper growth is dependent on six 
favorable conditions: namely, (1) soil as a home for the 
plant, (2) plant food, (3) light, (4) warmth, (5) air, and (6) 
water. Besides these, freedom from weeds, insects, and 
plant diseases is essential. Fertile soil in good tilth sup- 
plies a home and plant food, and permits the access of air 
to roots; climate largely determines how much heat, Hght, 
and water plants in any place may have. Of these three, 
the supply of water alone can be controlled to any great 
extent by man. 

How the Plant Uses Water. More than half the weight 
of all growing plants is made up of water; some plants con- 
sist almost entirely of it. For example, melons contain 
only 2 per cent of solid substance. Not only green plants, 
but dried ones, contain considerable moisture. Hay, straw, 
corn, and wheat contain from 5 to 20 per cent of water. 
This fact can be detected readily by heating a small quan- 
tity of any of these substances in a test tube. The water 
vapor driven off will collect on the cool part of the tube 
near the mouth. 

Plant food must be dissolved in water before it can be 
absorbed by the plant. The dissolved minerals are carried 
upward by water, and, after they have been united with 
carbon dioxide and water in the leaves, water carries the 
new plant foods, known as elaborated plant food, to all parts 
of the plant. 
3— 33 



34 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

Plant Processes and Water. Soil moisture passes into 
the root hairs when there is a greater concentration of dis- 
solved substance in them than in the soil water. This 
action is the result of osmotic pressure, a force explained 
elsewhere in this book (p. 45). When the concentration of 
any one mineral is less within the root hair than in the soil 
water, that mineral diffuses inward. Those minerals used 
for plant food are carried from the root into the stem and 
leaves, thereby enabling more of them to enter, if there are 
some at hand in solution. Water, however, goes in only 
when the total concentration within is greater than the total 
concentration of the soil moisture; but, as indicated, the 
minerals behave independently. If the bulb of a thistle 
tube is filled with a strong salt or sugar solution, a piece of 
parchment paper or animal bladder tied tightly across the 
large end, and the whole allowed to stand in fresh water 
for a few hours, water will rise in the small tube. A force 
similar to that which pulls water through the membrane 
causes water to enter the root hair. 

Once inside the plant, water moves from cell to cell until 
a series of small tubes is reached, by means of which it moves 
toward the leaves, carrying with it the useful materials 
absorbed by the roots. It is not definitely known what 
forces cause water to rise to the top of tall trees. When 
the leaves are reached, however this is accomplished, a part 
of the water is used in a reaction with carbon dioxide which 
enters the leaf through small openings called stomata. Most 
of it, though, is evaporated through these openings. 

Transpiration, as this giving off of water is called, can 
be shown by inverting a clean bottle over a healthy house 
plant. In about an hour water droplets will begin to con- 
dense on the bottle. Transpiration also helps to keep the 
plant cool. If water is not supplied as rapidly as needed, 
wilting follows on account of a collapse of cells in much the 
same way that a basket ball collapses as the air escapes. 



THE PLANT AND WATER 35 

When the bark is stripped from a plant, a sap-like 
liquid is found. This is a solution of elaborated plant food 
being carried downward from the leaves. The woody part 
just inside the bark is the area in which the water solution 
is carried upward. 

Manufacture of Foods. Green bodies, visible under the 
microscope, show throughout the leaves and other green 
parts of the plant. This green substance, known as chloro- 
phyll, in some way with the help of sunhght, uses carbon 
dioxide and water to produce sugar and then starch. Various 
other substances are formed by the union of these with 
mineral matter from the soil. These are the elaborated 
plant foods, which can be used by the plant in increasing 
its size, and in growing fruit, flower, stem, and root. 

Movement of Foods. Water not only carries these new 
products to various parts of the plant, but moves them 
again if necessary. Carrots and beets, for example, grow 
fleshy roots one year, and seed the next, if they receive 
proper care. The roots become hollow as the seed ripens, 
on account of the transfer of food material from root to 
seed. Since such movement can take place only when the 
substances are in solution, it is clear that water moves the 
stored food. In much the same way, considerable food is 
stored in branches and twigs of fruit trees. As the fruit 
develops, some of this is carried away to assist growth. 

Soil Water. Water, held as a film around soil particles, 
is used more readily, if it is abundant. To maintain a supply 
of water, farmers irrigate their fields or till the soil to prevent 
evaporation. Cultivation causes a thin blanket of loose 
soil to be formed. This mtdch conserves the water that is 
in the soil for the use of crops, if weeds are not using it. 
Since water is desired for the crop, all other causes of loss 
are reduced as much as possible. Sometimes it is possible 
to save water not only from one rain to the next but from 
one year to another. Such water storage makes dry-farming 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 




possible in regions of low rainfall, unless high winds, short 
seasons or other factors prevent crop growth. 

Available Water. All this water, however, can not be 
used by the plant. Only about half the water that a soil is 
able to hold without loss through drainage can be absorbed 
by root hairs. When less than this quantity is in the soil, 

it clings tight- 
ly to the par- 
ticles. This 
condition 
causes slow 
absorption, 
and conse- 
quently easy 
wilting. In 
well -aerated 

Figure 9. — Effect of too much water. Note the cracks due orM'lo. rv->/-»c.+ 
to puddling of the soil. SOliS, niObt 

crops extend 
some of their roots several feet into the soil. This drawing 
of water from greater depths increases the supply available 
to the crop. 

On the other hand, soils get overwet when rainfall is 
heavy or when much irrigation water is supplied, unless it 
can pass downward easily. Accumulation of water, known 
as water-logging, prevents sufficient air from reaching the 
roots. Drainage is necessary to get rid of this excess water. 

Other injuries sometimes result from alkali salts that 
water may carry to the surface. These salts may come 
from deep soil or from higher areas through which excess 
irrigation water seeps to low spots. The salt-carrying water 
must be drained off in this case also. 

Water Relation. The amount of water present in the 
soil is highly important in determining which plants can or 
can not grow on a particular spot. As a result, it is the chief 
factor in determining a plant community or association. 



THE PLANT AND WATER • 37 

The term plant community is used to designate a large 
group of plants of one kind or of several kinds growing in a 
particular locality in response to the same influences, such 
as in swamps, on hillsides, or on alkali plains. Geographical 
distributions called zones do not result from water relations 
so largely as from temperature relations. 




Figure 10. — Water relations are shown by brush in wet places and scrubby growth 
on higher and drier ridges. 

Plant Communities. Plant associations in relation to 
water are usually classified as xerophytes, mesophytes, and 
hydrophytes. Xerophytes are plants, such as the prickly 
pear and salt-grass, commonly found in regions that are 
physically or physiologically dry. Mesophytes are plants 
which thrive best neither in very moist nor in very dry 
conditions. Most of our cultivated crops belong to this 
group. Hydrophytes are plants which naturally live in 
water or where it can be had in abundance. Algae, water- 
cress, sedges, and rushes are typical hydrophytes. 

Conditions Favoring Xerophytic Formations. Xerophytic 
conditions are due to the nature of the soil and to 
climate. A dry soil is regarded as either physically dry or 
physiologically dry. A physically dry soil is one which 
contains but little water. A soil is physiologically dry, 



38 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

when, although the water content is considerable, the plant 
can not make use of it. This condition occurs in soils that 
are very acid or cold, and in soils which contain considerable 
alkali. Plants growing in regions of much salt, though called 
xerophytes, are also conveniently termed halophytes to 
distinguish them from other xerophytes. Soils containing 
approximately one half of one per cent of salt in solution — 
along sea coasts and salt marshes, for example — favor this 
type of xerophytic formation. A low temperature prevents 
the roots of plants from taking up much water, although it 
may be in the soil in sufficient quantity to favor growth. 
Coldness, however, makes the vegetation xerophytic. This 
condition is manifest in the tundras of the far north, where 
only a few mosses are able to grow. Other climatic condi- 
tions favoring xerophytic growth are dry air, high tem- 
perature, and elevation, which hasten the loss of water by 
transpiration from the plants. 

Conditions Favoring Mesoph3rtic Formations. Meso- 
phytes grow on soils that are not especially acid, saline, or 
cold, and hence not physiologically dry. Likewise they do 
not thrive on soils that contain so little water as to be phys- 
ically dry. These types of soils are usually well-aerated, 
containing a fair amount of plant food and supporting good 
plant growth. They are illustrated by our cultivated crops, 
which require a climate not favoring excessive transpi- 
ration and in which the temperature is not unusually high. 

The conditions favoring hydrophjrtic formations are 
the opposite of those listed under xerophytic conditions. 
The soils are abundantly supplied with water — at times 
the plants are even submerged. The soils are neither too 
cold nor too salty, allowing the roots to absorb without much 
difficulty all the water and food material necessary. 

Effects on the Form of the Plant. Plants known as 
xerophytes adapt themselves to xerophytic conditions in 
various ways. Some have the leaf surfaces reduced; some 



THE PLANT AND WATER 39 

have no leaves at all; still others have their leaves replaced 
by spines or thorns. The plant, in some instances, tends 
to reduce its surface by the leaves' becoming more nearly 
round. It may change in other ways: (1) by producing a 
waxy covering or an abundant growth of hairs, (2) by form- 
ing a thicker outer layer over the epidermis, and (3) the 




Figure 11 — Vegetation changes markedly from rushes and sedges in the marsh to 
trees on higher land. (Gage.) 



stomatal openings through the epidermis may be lessened in 
number or occupy more sunken positions. The changes 
brought about in hydrophytes are the opposite of those in 
xerophytes. The leaves are larger and thinner with more 
stomata. The epidermal covering is thin, and often without 
hair or wax. 

Water and Crops. Throughout arid regions, where soils 
are deep and fertile and where the sun shines most of the days, 
water is the most important factor in determining how suc- 
cessfully crops can be grown. Until recently no one regarded 
western farms as worth anything, if there was not water for 
ample irrigation. Under dry-farming the chief problem is 
how much water can be saved in the soil. Water is the one 
thing that limits the production of crops to a greater extent 
than any other single factor. Soils and sunshine are plenti- 
ful; air and warmth abound; only water is scarce. 



40 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

QUESTIONS 

1. Show the relative importance of water to the plant. 

2. How much water do green plants contain? Dry plants? 

3. Why is water so necessary for plant growth? List its uses in 

agriculture. 

4. What is a mulch? How does it conserve moisture? 

5. Why does water enter the plant? How? What causes minerals 

to pass in? 

6. Explain transpiration. 

7. What work is done in the roots of plants? In the leaves? In the 

stem? How does water help in each? 

8. In what ways is too much soil water injurious to crops? 

9. What should be done with water-logged soils? How? 

10. What is meant by a plant community or association? 

11. Name and describe three kinds of plants in regard to the supply 

of water. What are halophytes? 

12. How do droughty conditions affect plants? 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. Secure a test tube and burner. Place some dry substances in the 
bottom of the test tube. Heat gently, keeping mouth of tube 
cool. Note vapor and drops of water. Explain. 

2 Remove the outer layer from a growing plant. Note the solution 
of plant food. 

3. Place in four deep tight pans, cans, or buckets some wet but not 

saturated soil. Pack the surface gently by pressure with some 
flat body. To two of these add two or three inches of fine, 
dry sand or other loose soil. Keep the surfaces dry. Stand 
all four in a warm but not a hot place. In a week examine 
carefully. What has happened? Explain. Discuss application. 

4. Go for a short trip to study plant communities. Examine all 

found. Try to explain each. Look for them in distance. 

5. Collect leaves and other plant parts showing methods of protection 

against drying out. 

REFERENCES 

Any textbook of botany. 
Any textbook of physiography. 
Irrigation and Drainage, King. 
Principles of Irrigation Practice, Widtsoe. 
Principles of Agronomy, Harris and Stewart. 



CHAPTER V 

THE PLANT AND THE SOIL 

The relationship existing between the plant and the soil 
is ver}^ important. In any system of agriculture, the plant 




Figure 12. — Small vs. large kernels as to vitality. 4 on right, large 
oats; 4 on left, small oats. 

is dependent upon the soil in a large measure for its food 
supply, while the soil in turn is dependent upon the plant 
for the production of the organic matter of the soil, the 
presence and decay of which are so essential to the main- 
tenance of its productivity. 

Seed. Without good seed it is impossible to raise plants 
economically. The value of the seed depends, among other 
things, upon the variety grown. Thus, for example, it has 
been found by the Utah Experiment Station, as a result of 
seven years' experimental work, that the lowest yielding 
variety of wheat, Odessa, gave a yield of 20.9 bushels, and 
the highest yielding variety, Turke}^ Red, gave 32.7 bushels, 
making a difference of 11.8 bushels in favor of the better 
variety of wheat. In addition, the Turkey Red is more 
valuable for the production of flour, being richer in those 

41 



42 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

qualities necessary for bread production. Again, the value 
of the seed depends in a large measure upon its vitality or 
vigor. The fresher seeds, since they have greater vitality 
than the older ones, are more desirable. The size of the 
seed is also an important factor. It has been definitely 
determined that a better yield may be obtained by planting 
the larger seed. 

Home of the Plant. But good seed alone can not pro- 
duce crops. There are other essential factors, one of which 
is the soil, which serves as the home of the plant. The 
roots of the plant secure a foothold in the soil, thus forming 
a firm foundation upon which the plant can build its parts 
above the ground. The home of the plant may vary in 
texture to great depths; or it may contain a hardpan or a 
gravelly subsoil at a depth of one to two feet. Although it is 
practically an impossibility to convert a heavy clay into a 
sandy soil, much may be done to improve the condition of 
either extreme type by the addition of organic matter, the 
thorough tillage of the soil, and the introduction of under- 
drainage. The structure of a heavy clay soil can, in most 
cases, be greatly improved by the addition of finely ground 
limestone in small amounts, or by the addition of sand, 
although the cost of adding sand in sufficient amounts to 
modify the physical condition of the clay is probably too 
great ordinarily to warrant its application. On a limited 
scale, however, it may be profitable. A few loads of clay, 
on the other hand, may materially modify a sandy soil. 

We are realizing more and more that it is desirable in the 
case of the home of the animal (including the human being) 
to have a well-ventilated house which is kept in a sanitary- 
condition. We know that man can not rise to the highest 
efficiency when he lives in a stuffy, ill -ventilated room. As 
it is with the home of man, so it must be with the home of the 
plant. The soil should be kept in a well- ventilated, sanitary 
condition. Thus, if the home of the plant becomes decidedly 



THE PLANT AND THE SOIL 43 

sour, or acidic, the condition may be remedied by the addi- 
tion of limestone. Fortunately, in the intermountain 
western section of the country, very few, if any, soils are 
acidic in nature, being abundantly supplied with limestone. 
Again, soils that are supplied with an excess of water-soluble 
salts are rendered nonproductive on account of the accumu- 
lation of the so-called alkali. Soils that are water-logged, a 
condition attributable, largely, in irrigated districts, to the 
excessive use of irrigation water, are also unsanitary. It is 
essential, therefore, that the home of the plant be kept in a 
sweet, sanitary condition. 

Source of Plant Food. Besides serving as the home of 
the plant, the soil furnishes some of its food. The material 
out of which the plant is made is obtained by it from three 
sources: (1) from the carbonic acid gas of the atmosphere, 
(2) from the moisture of the soil, and (3) from the inorganic 
plant foods, or rock material, of the soil. While the greater 
part of the plant is obtained from the first two sources, a 
small, yet essential part is obtained from the rock material 
of the soil. Thus, if the wheat kernel is burned, about 98 
per cent will pass off into the atmosphere, which, in a general 
way, represents the material obtained by the plant from the 
moisture and from the atmosphere. The remaining 2 per 
cent, the so-called ash of the plant, is the solid material 
obtained by the plant from the soil. In this material there 
are six of the essential plant foods, without which a plant 
can not grow normally and reproduce its kind. 

Physical Condition of the Soil. The soil should be main- 
tained in the best possible physical condition. By this 
statement we mean that it should crumble readily when 
cultivated, and it should have that desirable quality which 
we speak of as tilth. This is desirable, because a soil in 
such condition retains moisture well and the plant food 
contained in it is rendered more easily available to the plant. 
A soil in a proper state of tilth readily admits the penetration 



44 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



of the roots of plants in search for moisture and plant food. 
The physical condition may be changed by proper tillage, 
by the introduction of organic matter, and in some cases 
by the addition of the so-called commercial fertilizers. 

Function of Roots. The 
roots of a plant consist in 
general of two principal 
kinds, — the main, or tap, 
root, together with its 
different large side roots 
which serve as an anchor- 
age for the plant, and the 
small root hairs, which are 
so small that they will 
probably escape observa- 
tion unless a careful ex- 
amination is made. The 
purpose of root hairs is to 
obtain food for the plant. 
It is essential, therefore, to 
know the conditions under 
which a maximum number 
of these root hairs may be 
developed. Because a soil 
well supplied with lime- 
stone is both porous and 
fertile, more root hairs develop than in a soil lacking it. 
How a Plant Feeds. If close examination is made of 
these root hairs, it will be found that there are no small 
openings in them. How, then, does the plant secure food 
by means of these organs? The soil solution containing the 
dissolved plant foods diffuses through the outer covering of 
these roots hair into the plant sap. The membrane sur- 
rounding the root hairs is a semiporous membrane, through 
which water and certain dissolved salts may pass readily. 




Figure 13. — Kernel of oats enlarged about 
two diameters, showing root hairs. 



THE PLANT AND THE SOIL 



45 



Since there is a concentration of water-soluble material in 
the soil solution surrounding the root hairs, there is a ten- 
dency for the water to pass from the soil solution into the 
plant. A small amount of plant food may be mechanically 

transported in this 
way; but, in addi- 
tion, there is a ten- 
dency for a diffusion 
or a passage of the 
plant foods them- 
selves from without 
to within the plant. 
This process is spo- 
ken of as osmosis. 

Lime Favorable 
to Legumes. In ad- 
dition to the main 
roots of plants and 
the root hairs already 
noted, there are on 
the roots of certain 
crops, called legumes, 
such as alfalfa, clov- 
er, peas, and beans, 
small enlargements 
known as nodules. 
These nodules are of great importance in agriculture; for 
within them are growing, nitrogen-fixing bacteria, small 
organisms that have the power of utilizing the free nitrogen 
of the atmosphere and converting it into the combined form 
for the use of the higher plants. These small plants require 
a nonacidic soil and consequently develop readily in a lime- 
stone soil. Therefore, sour soils must be first treated with 
limestone before legumes can be grown successfully. 




Figure 14. — Nitrogen nodules on clover. 



46 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

Aeration. It is important that the home of the plant 
be kept in a well-aerated condition in order that the plant 
food may be rendered available by different chemical and 
bacteriological processes. Bacteria, as already noted, play 
a highly important part in rendering the plant food available. 




Figure 15. — Nitrogen tubercles on soy beans. 

In order that they may carry on their proper work, an 
abundant supply of air is necessary. Again, the purely 
chemical processes of rendering plant food available demand 
a supply of air; and, in addition, the germination of the seed, 
essentially a process of combustion, or burning, requires a 
supply of air. 

Temperature. It is important that the home of the 
plant be kept at as uniform a temperature as possible. 
Sudden changes are harmful. The temperature of the 
soil is very difficult to control; but it has been determined 
that a soil well-supplied with organic matter may be six or 
eight degrees warmer than a soil not so composed. This 
fact again points out the necessity and importance of adding 
organic matter, such as decayed straw, leaves, and barn- 



THE PLANT AND THE SOIL 



47 



yard manure, to the soil. In addition, a soil that is water- 
logged is generally cold and does not warm up readily in the 
spring, indicating the neod of thorough drainage. 

Rotation of Crops. It is undesirable to grow any one 
crop continuously upon the same piece of ground. The 

crops should be 
changed regularly and 
in a systematic man- 
ner. Such a change of 
crops is called rotation. 
As far as practicable 
the farmer should 
know definitely the 
crop that he is going 
to grow upon any given 
soil several years in 
advance of the grow- 
ing of that crop. There 
are some well-defined 
reasons for practic- 
ing such a method of 
farming. By a system 
of crop rotation, which 
includes a legume, we 
are enabled to utilize 
the atmospheric nitro- 
gen involved in crop 
production. The rotation also gives us a better method of 
controlling insect pests and plant diseases. Further, it ren- 
ders possible the elimination of weeds, and, from an eco- 
nomic point of view, gives the farmer a chance to utilize his 
time to better advantage by permitting him to arrange his 
crops in such a way that only one needs attention at 
one time. Horse labor and irrigation may also be used more 
economically. 




Figure 16. — Nitrogen tubercles on alfalfa en- 
larged. 



48 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

QUESTIONS 

1. How important for high yield is the variety of a crop? 

2. Show how the soil is the home of the plant. How may this home 

be improved? 

3. What is plant food? From where does the plant obtain its 

mineral supply? 

4. When is a soil in good physical condition? How may this con- 

dition be obtained? 

5. How do plants take in mineral food? 

6. Why are soils rich in lime advantageous? 

7. In what ways does aeration assist in the activities of the soil? 

8. How may soils be made warmer? 

9. What are crop rotations? 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. To samples of clay soils add sand, leaf mold, cut straw, and fine 

manure. Then mix thoroughly with a moderate quantity of 
water and let stand. Dampen and mix a sample of straight clay. 
After a few days, when dry, compare results. 

2. Add to boiling water all the salt it will dissolve. Cool and fill the 

bulb of a thistle tube with the solution. Tie a piece of animal 
bladder or parchment paper over it in such a way as to shut 
out all air. Stand in a vessel of fresh water. If successful, 
this experiment illustrates osmosis in from three to twenty- 
four hours. To be successful, all air must be kept out of the 
thistle tube. 

REFERENCES 

Any textbook of Botany. 

Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture, Hopkins. 

Soils and Soil Fertility, Whitson and Walster. 

Soils, Lyon, Fippin, and Buckman. 

Fertilizers and Crops, Van Slyke. 

Principles of Agronomy, Harris and Stewart. 



CHAPTER VI 



MICROSCOPIC PLANTS 



Vast as is the number of plants which we see about us 
daily, still more numerous are those which are about us 
everywhere but which we do not see because they are so 
small. These microscopic organisms are bacteria, yeasts, 

and molds. Bacteria, which 
comprise the majority of 
these, are minute, unicellular 
organisms which multiply by 
a process called fission. They 
are composed of rod-shaped, 
spherical, and spiral bodies. 
Yeasts are unicellular or- 
ganisms usually considerably 
larger than bacteria and have 
a definite organized nucleus. 
They usually multiply by a 
process called budding and 
are oval bodies. Molds are multicellular fungi of consider- 
able size and in types of body are much more complex than 
either bacteria or yeasts. 

They are all classed together as simple undifferentiated 
plants which never develop roots, stems, or leaves. 

The bacteria are of the most importance and are found 
m large numbers in the air we breathe, in the water and 
milk we drink, in the soil and on everything with which the 
soil comes in contact, and on every food exposed to the air. 
In fact there are very few places where they do not exist. 
Bacteria are not found normally in the tissues of the plants, 
nor in the blood and tissues of healthy animals. They are 

4— 49 




Figure 17 — A colony of mold. 



50 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



often present, though in small numbers, deep in the earth 
and likewise in the sea. 

Size. Bacteria are so small that a single grain of dust, 
too minute to be seen by the unaided eye, may carry large 
numbers of them. Yet, despite this small size, there is 
considerable variation in their form and actions, — such a 

variation that, 
after careful 
study of them, 
scientists have 
distinguished 
many hundreds 
of species and 
have grouped 
them in four 
general families 
based upon 
shape, as rod, 
sphere, spiral, 
and those 
whose cells are 
cylindrical, 
united in threads or filaments, and surrounded by a sheath. 
The Organism. If we were to examine the individual 
cell — each organism is a single cell — we should find that it 
contains a cell-wall, a cell content, or protoplasm, and at 
least a functional nucleus, although this is not as definite 
as it is in the higher plants. In addition, the organism 
may contain small hair-like processes (flagella) projecting 
from the body, by means of which the cell is able to move 
through the water or other liquid in which it happens to be. 
Furthermore, spores are formed by many bacteria, which 
are simply concentrations of the vital part of the organism in 
a form especially resistant to heat, light, and other unfavor- 
able conditions. The bacterial cell multiplies rapidly, one cell 




Figure 18. — Bacteria. I. Type of cocci; II. Bacilli; III Spir 
ilium; IV. True branching of one class of bacteria. 



MICROSCOPIC PLANTS 51 

becoming two in so short a time as twenty minutes, although 
the average time is sKghtly more. With this power of rapid 
development in mind it is easy to understand such common 
processes as putrefaction, decay, and souring, which often 
take place with remarkable rapidity where the life condi- 
tions — moisture, temperature, food, and chemical reaction — 
happen to be exactly right. 

Nitrification and Nitrogen-Fixation by Bacteria. Bac- 
teria play an important role in the economy of nature. 
They are essential in plant growth on account of their 
agency in circulating nitrogen. This circulation of nitrogen 
is effected by the breaking down of complex compounds 
which contain nitrogen and by the formation from these of 
simple nitrates soluble in water and available as plant food. 
Bacteria have, in addition, the power of drawing the valu- 
able element nitrogen from the air and yielding it up to 
plants, especially characteristic of legumes, such as alfalfa, 
peas, and vetch. This process is called nitrogen-fixation 
and is an extremely valuable process in agricultural practice; 
for, when these plants or the plant residues are plowed under, 
it serves to enrich the soil. Still others have the power of 
growing free in the soil and changing atmospheric nitrogen 
into organic compounds. Furthermore, many bacteria found 
in the soil decompose plant residues of the soil and liberate 
from them essential plant foods. 

Industrial Uses. Bacteria, in the process of putrefaction, 
act on starch and sugar, liberating carbon dioxide. Indus- 
trial application is made of bacteria in such processes as 
tanning and the retting of flax. Bacteria produce, in addi- 
tion, if properly manipulated, the desired flavors in butter 
and cheese. These actions are all regulated accurately by 
inoculating the cream with the desirable organism. 

Bacteria and Disease. In contrast with these great bene- 
fits which are bestowed on man, bacteria are the cause of 
various diseases in plants, in animals, and in man. Specific 



52 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



infections, such as tuberculosis, diphtheria, anthrax, and 
glanders are caused by bacteria. They also cause inflamma- 
tion in wounds and abscesses. Furthermore, by decomposi- 
tion they may produce in certain food products a group of 
substances called ptomaines, which cause intoxication or 
even death upon being taken into the animal or human body. 

Yet these very organisms which 
produce disease are the basis of 
vaccines and of antitoxins and 
other substances used in prevent- 
ing and curing disease. It is an 
interesting fact that many disease 
germs call out the latent powers 
of the body to combat the disease. 
The utilization of this great agency 
in fighting and conquering the dis- 
eases of man is intensely practical. 
Requirements. One of the im- 
portant considerations in the 
observation and control of these 
organisms is their life conditions. 
They have very definite requirements." Their food must 
be in such a condition that it can be assimilated; they 
will not live, except in rare cases, on inorganic matter. 
The majority will not live unless some nitrogen and mineral 
salts are present; some require carbohydrates. The waste 
products of bacteria, which result from multiplication, col- 
lect around them and check the growth of the organisms. 
Water is necessary in some form for the continuous 
growth of bacteria. The amount of drying which an organ- 
ism will stand varies with the species, and varies in the same 
individual in response to conditions which are little under- 
stood. As a rule the vegetative forms do not endure long in 
the presence of drouth, but spores may resist drying for years. 
Bacteria demand, in addition, for their best .growth, 




■Figure 19. — Yeast. 



MICROSCOPIC PLANTS 



53 




a certain temperature, which varies greatly with different 
species. Some will develop vigorously at 14 degrees Centi- 
grade; others at 40 degrees Centigrade; most, however, 
demand a medium temperature. Some will develop in the 
presence of air; others demand the absence of air. We thus 
have two great groups established : the so-called aerobes and 

the anaerobes — the former 

requiring the presence, the 
latter the absence, of air. 

Light is also an important 
factor. Direct sunlight is 
germicidal; that is, it will kill 
the organisms if applied con- 
tinuously. Diffused light is 
injurious. Electric light is 
supposed to have the same 
effect as sunlight. Bacteria 
thrive best in darkness. The 
X-ray is known to destroy 
living tissue on long exposure 
and bacteria cannot be more 
resistant. The X-ray is used in the treatment of microbial 
diseases of the skin. 

On account of the necessity of definite conditions which 
vary with the different species, there have grown up what 
are called bacterial flora, that is, groups of organisms local- 
ized in nature. Thus we have certain organisms normally 
characteristic of milk, others of water, of soil, and of air. 

Bacteria Harnessed. Due to the careful study of these 
organisms man has reached the point where he may exer- 
cise a control over their activity. Many of those which are 
most beneficial he has learned to utilize to his great good, 
and many of those that are detrimental he has learned to 
avoid. Many of the most deadly forms, as previously stated, 
he has been enabled to overcome by the use of the very 



Figure 20. — Culture of bacteria. The 
white spots are colonies started by 
the dropping of bacteria on a dish 
when exposed to air. 



54 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

products which the organisms cause to be formed. As our 
knowledge of this vast invisible kingdom of organisms in- 
ci eases, our ability to control them will increase. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What are bacteria? 

2. How large are they? 

3. Describe living bacteria. 

4. Of what value are they? Are all kinds useful? Which are in- 

jurious? 

5. What conditions favor their growth? 

6. How are bacteria harnessed? 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. If a microscope is available, soak some moldy hay for two or three 

days in some lukewarm water. Now transfer a small drop to 
a slide and add a drop of iodine solution. Cover with clean 
cover glass and examine under high-power microscope. Note 
the shape and movement of bacteria. 

2. Make up a three per cent sugar solution. Into this put a piece 

of baker's yeast. Set in a warm place for a few hours and 
then examine as in Exercise 1 . 

3. Secure a piece of moldy bread. Place a cover glass gently on 

the mold. Remove as carefully as possible and place on a 
glass slide with mold next to slide, being careful not to draw 
cover glass sidewise. Note the structure of the mold and the 
manner in which spores are born. 

REFERENCES 

Agricultural Bacteriology, Conn. 

Bacteria in Relation to Country Life, Lipman. 

Home Sanitation, Sanitary Science Club of Ass'n of Collegiate 

Alumnae. 
Principles of Microbiology, Moore. 
Laboratory Directions in Bacteriology, Moore. 
Bacteria, Yeasts, and Molds in the Home, Conn. 
Soils, Lyon, Fippin, and Buckman. 
Pathogenic Micro-organisms, Park. 
Fertility of the Land, Roberts. 
General Bacteriology, Jordan. 
Microbiology, Marshall. 



CHAPTER VII 
PLANTS AND ANIMALS 

Plants and animals make up the living, or organic, 
things of nature's realm. Air, water, rocks, and soil are 
the chief constituents of the inorganic world. Between the 
inorganic and organic kingdoms there is a wide, and, so far 
as present knowledge extends, an impassible gulf. Plants 
and animals possess that distinctive thing called life. Just 
what life is or where it originated we may never know. Its 
activities and manifestations, however, are never-ending 
sources of interest. Things endowed with life are capable 
of growth and development. They possess the power of 
combining material from the inorganic world and building 
themselves up; they also possess the power of reproducing 
living things, which grow to be like themselves; and in the 
end they die and disintegrate. Inorganic things possess 
none of these qualities. A stone may grow larger or smaller 
as particles are added or taken away, but there is nothing 
inherent in the stone itself that enables it to do either. 

What Plants and Animals Have in Common. Plants 
and animals possess many things in common. The living 
substance of each is protoplasm, practically alike in the two 
groups. Chemically, the greater part of both plants and 
animals is made up of the same four elements: (1) carbon, 
(2) hydrogen, (3) oxygen, and (4) nitrogen; and the com- 
pounds of these forms are grouped into the same three gen- 
eral classes: carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. 

Dependence of Animals on Plants. Animals are, how- 
ever, entirely dependent upon plants for their food. The 
plant, out of the carbon dioxide, water, and small amounts 
of nitrogen and other elements from the soil, builds up and 

55 



56 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

stores in its tissues complex chemical compounds. Even 
the nitrogen is nearly all originally obtained from the air, 
though by the help of lower forms of life it is first stored 
in the soil. The plant builds up over nine tenths of its 
entire substance from air and water, and, in turn, builds up 
the animal's body. Even carnivorous animals obtain their 
food from plants, as they feed on herbivorous animals. 

The plant appropriates from the air carbon dioxide, 
a gas exhaled by animals and poisonous to them and gives 
off in its turn oxygen which the animal uses. In the animal 
body the complex chemical compounds from the plants are 
either burned to maintain bodily heat or built up into 
still more complex compounds. In these processes carbon 
dioxide is given off and returned to the air for the use of 
plants, thus completing the cycle. 

Indestructibility of Matter. Matter is, as we have 
learned, indestructible. It may change its form, but can 
be neither created nor destroyed. We may burn a lump of 
coal until there is nothing left but a trifle of ash, but the 
carbon has only changed its form, uniting with the oxj^gen 
of the air to form carbon dioxide, which passes off as gas. 
This gas in the air may later be taken up by plants and 
changed to a still more complex compound. In doing this 
the plant will take up from the soil minute particles of 
minerals such as were contained in the ash of the coal. 
This plant along with others may fall into a marsh and be 
covered up for a long time, be subjected to pressure, and 
finally turn to coal to be dug up and burned again. 

Limestone, which appears in strata of immense thick- 
ness in our mountain chains, owes its origin to the inter- 
relation of minute forms of plant and animal life. The 
little shell-bearing protozoa flourished in the warmer seas 
of past geological ages, because they found there an abun- 
dance of still smaller forms of plant hfe upon which they 
could subsist. Countless biUions of these little animals lived 



PLANTS AND ANIMALS 57 

near the surface of the water where the plant Hfe was the 
most abundant. They extracted the Hme from the water 
to form their calcium carbonate shells, and, as they grew 
old and died, these tiny shells sank to the bottom. Cen- 
tury after century this process went on, constantly adding 
to the thickness of the limestone on the ocean floor, until 
part of the mighty masses we see to-day were formed. 
From these limestone rocks many of our most fertile soils 
have been largely derived. These soils in turn produce 
plants, which are used in turn to feed other animals; and 
so the continual round of life goes on. 

Interdependence of Plants and Animals. No animal can 
obtain its food directly from the elements or even from the 
simpler compounds. Without plants to take the elements 
from the water and soil and build them, into compounds, 
no animal could live. Without animals, fire, or lower organ- 
isms to break up these compounds and release the carbon 
dioxide, the plants would die. We are familiar with this 
stored-up carbon of plants as the humus of our soils, as peat, 
and as beds of coal. 

Animals and plants are interdependent upon each other 
in many ways. Higher animals and insects feed on growing 
plants, often destroying them. Other groups of higher ani- 
mals and other insects feed on these herbivorous ones and 
hold them in check, thus restoring such a balance to nature 
that all may survive. 

Pollination of Flowers. Many plants depend upon birds 
or insects to fertilize their flowers and thus to perpetuate 
their kind. Clover does not set seed until visited by bumble 
bees. In some regions there are not enough bumble bees to 
make it profitable to raise clover seed. In many places the 
first crop is cut for hay and the second left for seed, because 
bumble bees are more numerous in the fall of the year. 
Alfalfa depends to some extent upon honey bees and flies for 
its pollination. Many varieties of fruit bear better colored 
and larger crops if cross-fertilized. 



58 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

Seed Dissemination. The seeds of many plants are 
distributed by animals. The burdock and the cocklebur 
are distributed in this way in the winter time. Other seeds, 
called beggar-ticks, stick-tights, and like names, are dis- 
tributed in this way during the summer. Birds and animals 
carry seeds in the mud that clings to their feet. Aquatic 
birds, especially, carry many seeds in this way from one 
marsh to another. 

Civilization Affected by the Crops. As long as primitive 
man was content to subsist on what wild animals could fur- 
nish him, he needed no home and roved from place to place 
as circumstances warranted. When, however, he first began 
to cultivate desirable plants to increase his food supply, it at 
once became necessary to settle down in one spot and re- 
main there for some time. It was also necessary for him 
to select that spot with reference to the favorable growth 
of the particular plants that he cultivated. Thus the great 
civilized nations of the world have been more or less in- 
fluenced in their location by the habits of certain plants. 
The wheat belt of the world is the civilization belt as well, 
just as much as the corn belt is the hog belt of this country, 
and for similar reasons. Another type of civilization has 
followed the rice plant, and still another the breadfruit and 
the date palm. 

How Man Uses Plants. Plants have always furnished 
shelter for many wild animals and for man. As civilization 
developed, this primitive shelter under branches developed 
into rude huts of different structures such as grasses, branches, 
and bark. Still further development came in the shape of 
clothing and wooden buildings. Plants also furnish us 
shade and ornamental trees. They beautify our grounds and 
appeal to our aesthetic sense by their beautiful foliage and 
flowers. They contribute not only to our food and shelter, 
but to our comforts and pleasures as well. Wood enters 
largely into the construction of tools and vehicles. Wood 



PLANTS AND ANIMALS 59 

and coal furnish our fuel. Wood and other plant structures 
furnish our paper without which civilization would have 
been retarded for centuries. Rubber is obtained from plants 
and adds much to the comforts of to-day. Opium, tobacco, 
and whiskey are furnished by plants. Plants then contribute 
to our necessities, our comforts, our virtues, and our vices. 

Crops and Live Stock on the Farm. The relation of 
plants and animals in farm economy is very close. The 
animal is the best market for much that the farm produces. 
By feeding farm products directly to animals the cost of 
transportation and the profits of the transportation com- 
panies are eliminated, the middleman's charges and profits 
are saved, and the farmer, dealing directly with the ultimate 
consumer, gets the actual value of his products. 

The animal acts like a concentrator in mining operations, 
decreasing the bulk and increasing the value of the product. 
It also reacts on the crops themselves, as the animal in its 
growth takes largely from that part of the crop that is 
derived from the air and water, and leaves much of that 
taken from the soil in a condition to be returned to the land as 
manure. It thus increases the fertility of the soil and conse- 
quently the productivity of the farm. 

The combination of grain and stock raising on the same 
farm tends also to a more even and economical distribution 
of labor throughout the year. In grain raising alone much 
labor is required in harvest time when labor costs highest 
and is often unobtainable at any price. On the other hand, 
during nearly half of the year there is no work whatever for 
the teams and little for the men. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is the difference between organic and inorganic matter? 

2. What are the fundamental activities of living things? 

3. What is the living substance? 

4. Could animals live in a region where there were no plants? 

5. Which come first — plants or animals? 



60 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

6. If a lump of coal is burned, could it ever be changed to coal again? 

How? 

7. Can an animal form stone? How? Does a stone ever help to 

feed an animal? 

8. Could plants continue to live without animal life? 

9. Why do not animals increase until they destroy all the plants? 

10. Are insects of value to plants? 

11. Do animals help to distribute plants? Are the plants they dis- 

tribute of benefit to them? 

12. A map of the world showing the wheat belt would also shew 

what other belt? 

13. What do plants contribute to the welfare of man? 

14. Should a farmer raise both plants and animals? Why? 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. While on a trip, find a rock with lichens on it. Tear these off 

and examine. Explain what has happened to the rock. 

2. Weigh a green plant, then dry it, and weigh again. 

Loss = water. 
Now_burn and weigh the ash. 

Loss = organic matter built up from carbon dioxide, nitrogen 

and water. 

Ash = what was taken from the soil except nitrogen. 

3. Go on a trip outside or to a greenhouse. Study flowers to see 

which ones depend upon insects for fertilization. Note the 
devices on the flowers to insure insect cross-fertilization. 

4. Collect seed from animals, clothing, etc. See if there is any use- 

ful plant among them. Study cocklebur, Spanish bayonet, 
burdock, beggar's-ticks, and other burs. Observe particularly 
special devices for chnging. 

REFERENCES 

Any textbook of physiography or geology. 

College Physiography, Tarr and Martin. 

Soils, Hilgard. 

The Soil, King. 

Physiography, Salisbury. 

The Origin and Nature of Soils, Shaler. Part I, Twelfth Report 

U. S. Geological Survey. 
Soils, Lyon, Fippin, and Buchman. 



CHAPTER VIII 
THE WEATHER 

A farm may be operated according to the most approved 
methods and yet fail on account of some unexpected change 
in the weather. A dry spell, with hot winds, in an unirri- 
gated region may wither the grain; a sudden storm may find 
the grain shocked or hay stacked in the field; hail may knock 
down the fruit or grain, or a frost kill the vegetables or 
young fruit blossoms. In most cases, were unfavorable 
weather known ahead, measures could be taken which would 
greatly diminish any possible damage. By means of the 
daily reports of the weather bureau, now so easily accessible, 
and by some familiarity with local conditions, a person may 
know what to expect in a general way with reasonable cer- 
tainty for twenty-four to thirty-six hours ahead. It should 
be of some interest to know how the staff of the weather 
bureau is able to forecast the weather, and of some value 
to be able to use their maps and reports. 

Air Pressure. The earth is surrounded by a great ocean 
of air at least twenty miles deep. This air, like every- 
thing else, is attracted by the earth and thus has weight. 
Because all the overlying layers of air are being drawn toward 
the earth, they press upon the lower layers and against 
any surface with which the air is in contact. 

A can, about one fifth full of water, corked while it is 
rapidly boiling, and immediately removed from the source 
of heat and cooled with cold water poured on the outside 
will collapse on account of air pressure. A tumbler com- 
pletely filled with water and having a piece of paper over the 
top will, when inverted, hold the water, on account of the 
air pressure against the paper. 



62 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

The pressure of the gas at a point in the atmosphere 
depends on how much gas there is above it pressing down, 
and hence the greater the depth of air, the greater the pres- 
sure. For example, the pressure is approximately 8.5 
pounds per square inch on Mt. Blanc, 10.5 pounds at Quito, 
12.5 at Salt Lake City, and 14.7 pounds to the square inch 
at the sea level. 

Air Cools When It Rises. It is well-known that the tops 
of high mountains, even under the equator, are always 
covered with snow. It has been found by the aid of the 
airship that the higher one ascends the colder it gets, the 
rate being approximately one degree for every three hundred 
feet. Pressure has caused varying densities in the atmos- 
phere. The denser the atmosphere is, the more particles 
of air it contains. As heat is supposed to result from the 
motion or agitation of molecules, the more molecules there 
are the more agitation there is and, therefore, the more heat. 
The rays of the sun in passing through the rarer parts of the 
atmosphere, therefore, produced little heat and through the 
lower or denser parts, much more heat. 

The neck of a bicycle tire becomes warm while the air is 
being compressed, or the tire pumped up, and, conversely, 
it grows cool when the air is let out and allowed to expand. 
When air rises for any cause it cools very considerably for 
two reasons. First, it is going into a locality where the 
conditions are colder, and, secondly, it is expanding because 
it is going to a locality of diminished pressure. As a result of 
expansion alone, dry air cools 1 degree F. for every 183 feet 
of elevation. 

Dew and Rain. Water left in the chicken yard or in the 
water trough will disappear, passing off in the air as invis- 
ible, gaseous water. The air always contains some of it, the 
supply being kept up by the evaporation from lakes and 
rivers. Whenever the air is sufficiently cooled the water 
contained in it condenses, forming minute drops. This result 



THE WEATHER 



63 



is observed in the formation of dew, causing the dampness 
of meadows in the early hours of the morning, and in 
the ''sweating" of pitchers or glasses of ice water in the 

summer, and in the cloud that 
the breath makes on a cold day. 
The same invisible gaseous 
water is in the air exhaled in the 
summer time. When the air is 
cold this is condensed to a cloud 
which is nothing more than an 
aggregate of very small drops 
of water. The clouds to be 
observed in the sky are identi- 
cal in appearance and structure 
with the one just mentioned and 
are also formed by the cooling 
of the moisture-laden air, due 
either to mixing with colder air 
or much oftener to rising to 
higher altitudes. Just as the 
little particles of dust float 
around in the air for days on 
account of the resistance of the 
air to their fall, before they 
settle, so these little drops fall 
very slowly on account of the 
uprising air current that caused 
their formation and on account 
of their smallness. Ifthey 
cool further, and the drops enlarge, they fall faster, and 
we say that it rains. When the air is colder than the freez- 
ing point, snow or hail result. 

Cause of Winds. All points on the earth are not equally 
heated, but more heat is received at the equator that at 
points north or south of it; and, at the same latitude, land 




Figure 21. — Standard rain and snow 
gauge. 



64 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



gets warmer than the adjoining water even though land and 
water receive the same amount of heat. The air from the 
hotter area expands and flows over at the top upon the ad- 
jacent air, making the air pressure greater where the extra 
air is, and less in the section whence it came. Thus, on 

account of the unequal heating, 
differences in air pressure are set 
up and the air then flows from 
the points of high to the points 
of low pressure, causing winds. 

Weather Observations. Storm 
and clear weather areas are usu- 
ally in the form of great circular 
rotating whirls of air of several 
hundred miles in diameter. They 
usually form in the western part 
of the United States or enter 
from the Pacific Ocean and travel 
eastward across the country, often 
getting nearly to Asia before they 
break up. Their position is 
determined as follows: 

At the same instant each day 
and at widely separated stations careful observations of the 
condition of the weather are made and are exchanged by 
telegraph. These are represented on maps which are often 
published in newspapers. They are used by the weather 
bureau and by others, for making weather forecasts. 

Weather Bureau Charts. Curves are drawn through the 
places that have the same air pressure. At the center of one 
of the sets of concentric curves ^'low" is written, meaning 
that the air pressure is lower there than over the surround- 
ing region. Similarly, ''high" is written in another place. 
From the arrows it is seen that the air is moving outward in 
all directions from the high and is entering the low from 




Figure 22. — Anemometer and wind 
vane. 



THE WEATHER 



65 




Figure 23. — Showing a storm center. 



all sides. Around the high the air is moving spirally out- 
ward and downward and in the direction of the movement 
of the hands of a clock, while around the low the air is com- 
ing in, rotating in the opposite direction and rising. There- 
fore, the low section 
is the storm area, 
and the high the 
fair weather section. 
Notice on the map 
that the shaded 
area which repre- 
sents the land where 
it is storming is 
around the low, 
while the high is 
unshaded. On ac- 
count of this spiral 
or rotaiy motion 
the cold air from the Northwest and the warm air heavily 
laden with moisture from the South are mixed and then 
further cooled by the expansion as the mixture rises, causing 
the precipitation. 

It is important to get a clear understanding of the dif- 
ference between the movements of the air in the low and the 
movement of the low itself, or its translation from place to 
place. Since these great eddies or storms are carried along 
by the general easterly movement of the atmosphere in the 
middle latitudes, the wind must blow into the front of the 
storm in a direction partly or wholly contraiy to the move- 
ment of the storm itself. The weather from day to day 
depends wholly on the movement of these highs and lows. 
In the temperate zone they drift toward the East at the 
usual rate of six hundred miles a day or about twenty-five 
miles an hour, traveling a little south of East and then a 
little north of East, ultimately reaching New England. 

5— 



66 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

They may go twice as fast or stop and remain stationary 
a day or two, much to the embarrassment of the forecaster. 

As the storm approaches, fine feathery clouds are to be 
seen; (notice the chart); later, low rain clouds form and the 
temperature rises; then comes the rain; finally, as the low 
passes over, the clouds begin to dissolve and we have clear- 
ing weather and falling temperature. Meanwhile, the 
wind will have reversed direction and the air pressure will 
have sunk and risen again. 

Value of Information. When a high develops in the 
North and a low in the South and they move off very slowly, 
we may expect a cold wave, due to the cold north wind; and 
word is passed to the fruit men. Mariners now receive 
word by wireless and the flying of signals from lighthouses 
when a hurricane is approaching. The smaller boats make 
for the harbor and those in the harbor postpone sailing. 
The government is also able to predict the flood stage of 
rivers from the data they collect of the amount of rain fall- 
ing in the mountains, the slope and penetrability of the 
ground, and from a study of previous floods. 

The farmer, by noticing the predictions of the weather 
bureau, or, if he has a barometer and observes it, may be 
fairly well guided in many of his agricultural operations. 

Climate. The weather expresses the condition of the 
air at a definite time — hot or cold, clear or cloudy, dry or 
wet, calm or windy. One may properly speak of the 
weather of yesterday but not of the climate; for the climate 
is the sum of the weather averaged over a long period of time 
to eliminate irregularities or variation from day to day. 

The general characteristic of the climate of the inter- 
mountain West is its aridity, the yearly rainfall being but 
about fifteen inches. Where it is not much less than ten 
inches grain may be grown by the so-called dry-farming 
methods, but in the more favored localities not too far 
from streams irrigation is practiced. On account of the 



THE WEATHER 67 

clearness and dryness of the atmosphere the heat of summer 
is not nearly as oppressive as in the humid regions, and the 
daily and yearly range of temperature is large. 

Hay, grain, and fruit may be profitably grown in this 
region, but there is considerable difference in the climate 
of its different parts and attention should be paid not only 
to the character of the soil and market, but also to the 
crops best adapted to the climate and rainfall. 

Climate and Man. Dry deserts, the torrid zone, and 
the polar regions have not proved themselves favorable for 
the development of civilized man. Here it is too difficult 
to gain a living. A uniform climate is depressing and pro- 
duces little development. In a climate that is neither too 
dry nor too extreme in temperature, habits of industry and 
thrift, which have brought civilization out of savagery, are 
made necessary but not too difficult. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is a weather bureau? How does it do its work? 

2. What do you know about air pressure? 

3. What are dew and rain? 

4. Explain the cause of winds. 

5. How do storms move across the country? 

6. What are weather charts? 

7. How is man affected by chmate? 

8. How does weather affect crops? 

9. What is "the weather"? 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. Secure weather maps. If these are not available, write for them 
to the "Local Office, Weather Bureau" in your state capital. 
Learn how to read them and how to predict weather from them. 

REFERENCES 

Descriptive Meteorology, Moore. 
Meteorology, Milham. 
Physics of Agriculture, King. 
Weather Reports. 



CHAPTER IX 
PHYSIOGRAPHIC FORCES OF THE EARTH 



All that we know of early geological history is written 
in the character of the rock that is now exposed on the 
surface or that has been laid bare by excavations and by 
landslides or upheavals. A brief knowledge of rock and an 
interpretation of the geological history of the earth are essen- 
tial to a clear understanding of our present earth. 

Classification of Rocks. Rocks which are formed by 
vulcanism, that is, those rocks which have been at one time 
in a molten condition but which are now hard, are classed 
as igneous; the other rocks, which are the hardened materials 
deposited in the seas, are classed as sedimentary. When 
either of these classes undergoes a change arising from heat 
and pressure, the rocks are termed metamorphic. 

The following arrangement gives a brief classification 
and probably a better understanding of what is meant by 
these classes: 

Table II. — Classification of Rocks. 



Igneous 


Sedimentary 


Metamorphic 


granite 


limestone 


marble 


3asalt 


sandstone 


quartzite 


trachite 


shale 


slate 


porphory 


conglomerate 


gneiss 


obsidian 




schist 


syenite 







Rock Formation. Volcanoes may cause lava flows on 
the surface or they may force beds of molten rock between 
other layers. When the top layer is worn off, the igneous 
rock may be exposed. Granite is so formed; basalt results 
from surface flows. Sedimentary rocks are formed in two 

68 



PHYSIOGRAPHIC FORCES OF THE EARTH 69 

ways: either (1) by rock particles' or soil grains' being washed 
into ocean beds and covered to a sufficient depth to be ce- 
mented by pressure, or (2) by a concentration of the shells 
and skeletons of sea animals and dissolved lime in mod- 
erately deep water. Limestone is formed by this last 
method. When limestone is covered and subjected for long 
ages to pressure by thousands of feet of rock above it, a 
gradual change converts it into marble. Small quantities 
of water carrying cementing materials may assist the trans- 
formation. Granite is changed to gneiss, sandstone to quart- 
zite, and shale to slate. 

Mountain chains are usually preceded by depressions 
in the crust of the earth. When these depressions are 
filled with sedimentary rock to the depth of about five or 
six miles, the pressure causes the lower rock to soften and 
yield. Since sedimentary rock has less strength than the 
igneous rock beside it on the rim of the depression, the 
area of this deposit becomes a line of weakness. Now the 
earth is shrinking largely from the loss of gases. Because 
the crust is larger than it needs to be, wrinkling results. 
Yielding naturally takes place at the weakest point; hence 
the sedimentary material is raised and is folded or broken 
with or without great displacements of the broken rock. 

Faults. When the sedimentary rock is deposited in a 
low place that forms an apparent inward curve, and when 
this is thrown into an outward curve, which is longer than 
an inward curve, a strain is set up and the sedimentary 
formation is broken into blocks. Some of the blocks are 
raised and some lowered, forming a fault at the place of 
breaking. That portion which projects above the surface 
is known as a fault scarp, and this class of faulting is known 
as a gravity fault, or a normal fault. When, however, sed- 
imentary rock is forced up by compression, it is either 
folded or faulted, so that one piece is pushed over the other. 
This tvpe of folding is known as a thrust fault. 



70 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

It is estimated that by this last method the American 
continent has been made narrower by more than a hundred 
miles; that is, if the folded sedimentary rock were spread 
out in a horizontal position, North America would be a 
hundred miles wider from ocean to ocean than it is. Some 
of these folds, as the result of one part's being pushed across 
the top of the other, are known to overlap more than twelve 
miles. 

Elevation of Ocean Beds. Much rock which was formed 
deep down in the sea is now, in many places, from one to 
two miles above the elevation at which it was formed. 
Evidence is written not only in the character of the rock 
but in the life of the rock as well. Coral reefs and the re- 
mains of numerous other forms of water life are now found 
as fossils more than a mile above sea level. 

Some coasts are gradually rising one or two feet in a 
century, and others are sinking at about the same rate. 
When these processes have continued for several centuries, 
broad patches of sea bottom are brought above water. 
The Atlantic coastal plain of the southern United States 
is an example. The old shore was at the western edge of 
the coastal plain, the so-called ''fall line." Much of this 
area is level and sandy, and the coast line is regular with 
few indentations. If, on the other hand, the coast is sink- 
ing, the water flows into the valleys and causes irregular 
coast lines having islands, peninsulas, and bays. The Pa- 
cific coast of Canada shows this phase of movement. Earth- 
quakes are likely to occur in either rising or sinking regions, 
especially near the fault lines. The San Francisco and 
Messina earthquakes occurred on old fault lines. 

Volcanoes have caused great changes on the surface of 
the earth by covering immense areas with lava. Sometimes 
valleys are filled, as in parts of California and along the 
Columbia and Snake rivers. At other times cities are cov- 
ered with lava or ashes, as in the case of Pompeii. Cones 



PHYSIOGRAPHIC FORCES OF THE EARTH 71 

are usually built up around the vent from which the dis- 
charge comes, though in some instances the lava passes 
outward from holes called fissures and flows quietly and 
evenly over a section. In whatever manner the lava issues 
it gives a new aspect to the area covered. The rock cools 
and finally weathers into soil that is rich or poor according 
to its nature and the way in which it decomposes. 

Valleys formed wholly by crustal movement are known 
as diastrophic valleys. They are likely to be narrow and 
steep-sided. These may be formed below the level of the 
sea or below the level of the regular drainage, and in the 
early period receive a filling to crowd out the water and 
thus form the broad level valleys, not a few of which we 
have at present. Many mountain valleys are of this origin. 
The more extensive areas, which have been raised up with 
but little folding or faulting, form the plateau areas. 

As soon as one area is raised above the sea, erosion begins. 
River valleys start to form at the base of the elevated 
areas. These valleys grow longer and wider, adding to 
themselves tributaries. They grow deeper as the material 
is carried away and taken to the lower lands by the water 
from melting snow and rain. 

Streams. As the valley deepens, its deeper parts get 
into the upper limits of the water table, and the valley has 
an intermittent stream. When the valley gets still deeper, 
the stream cuts into or below the water table, and the 
valley has a permanent stream. The stream cuts faster 
in regions of softer rock. In such a section, it will develop 
a broad valley with a flood plain. In this way river valleys 
are formed. 

It is, of course, in this later period that the streams carry 
great quantities of soil into the ocean to form fertile deltas 
like those of the Mississippi, the Nile, and the Ganges. 
Ocean waves gradually move a part of this earth into deeper 
water. If the coast sinks, it is covered again and again 



72 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

until depths sufficient to cause rock formation are accu- 
mulated. Meanwhile the slow movements of water on the 
ocean bed are gradually filling the low places, making the 
ocean bed fairly smooth. This smoothing is due largely to the 
fact that streams, when they enter bodies of water, lose 
their power to cut valleys or to transport anything except 
the finest clay. 

Action of Ice. Much of the earth has been subjected 
at some time to the action of ice. Northern and central 
Europe, Canada, and northern United States were glaciated. 
The ice tore off high places and filled low ones. The soils 
are usually firm and fine except in a district of terminal 
moraines, which are composed of rock, gravel, and soil mixed 
indiscriminately. Except for the morainic deposits, these 
glacial soils are generally fertile, as is shown in the immense 
harvests of the states of that region. Thousands of lakes 
in Europe and North America, including the Great Lakes, 
are the result of the scouring and the damming action of 
the advancing and retreating ice sheet. Many of the smaller 
lakes have been filled with sediment, which emptied them 
by crowding out the water, thereby leaving broad, level 
tracts of fertile soils, such as those of the Red River area 
of North Dakota, Minnesota, and Canada. Some of the 
scoured areas are almost bare. An example of this con- 
dition is found in Labrador, parts of which are nearly bare 
rock. New England soils are also thin in many places. 

Other Forces. Underground water constantly dissolves 
out some rock ingredients and carries them away in solu- 
tion or deposits them in cracks in the rock as seams of 
mineral. The white streaks in limestone are slender bodies 
of redeposited calcite which was dissolved from the lime rock. 

Atmospheric agencies — wind, rain, frost, heat and cold, 
oxygen, and moisture — are constantly weathering away the 
larger rock masses, tending to reduce all to soil, and thereby 
to counterbalance rock formation. 



PHYSIOGRAPHIC FORCES O-F THE EARTH 73 

Life — both plant and animal — has exercised no small 
force in the molding of parts of the earth. Some soils are 
formed almost entirely by former plant life. Coal and oil 
deposits are caused largely, if not entirely, by plant de- 
posits. In addition, ores such as the carbonates of lead 
and iron contain much carbon dioxide probably produced 
by organisms. 

The history of the earth has been a series of changes 
resulting from the combined action of these various forces. 
Nearly all land areas have been at some time under water, 
as is shown by the fossils of water animals found in the 
rocks. Rock, perhaps millions of years old, has been ex- 
posed by means of movements in the crust of the earth 
or by stream action. 

Some persons think that the earth cooled from a mass 
of gas, and that, as it cooled, it gradually assumed its pres- 
ent form and condition. A more recent and an apparently 
more satisfactory explanation is that small masses were 
gradually collected by the earth until it reached its present 
size. The old theory teaches that the moon was thrown 
off by the earth, but the new one suggests that the moon is 
a distinctly different body which came within the limits 
of the attraction of the earth and was held in its present 
position by the laws of gravity. If we accept the newer 
teaching, the heat of the interior of the earth should be 
attributed in part to the gaining of new material and to sub- 
stances contained rather than as a remnant of an original 
greater heat that is gradually escaping. 

QUESTIONS 

1. How are rocks classified? Name some in each of the three groups. 

2. How is each kind of rock material formed? 

3. Describe faulting. How fast does it take place? Explain the 

kinds. 

4. Discuss the nature and cause of earthquakes. 



74 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

5. Describe how ocean beds become land. Describe a soil formed in 

this way. 

6. What part have volcanoes taken in forming the surface of the 

earth? 

7. Show the difference between river valleys and diastrophic valleys. 

8. How are river valleys formed? 

9. How has ice affected parts of the earth? Was this beneficial? 

Show why. 

10. List the great forces that have made our earth what it is. 

11. What is known and what is thought of the past history and origin 

of the earth? 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. Collect various rocks and group them. Learn to know a few of 

them by sight. What is the value of each for soil? 

2. Find diagrams of mountain chains in any geography book. Model 

your region. Secure clay or putty and make flat mass deep 
enough for highest mountains. Carve out the valleys. 

3. Find diagrams of a fault. Lay down layers of various wet soils. 

Lift one side until layers break. Note the displacement — that 
is the fault. 

4. Collect pictures of volcanoes and of the effects of volcanic action. 

REFERENCES 

Any textbook of geology. 
Any textbook of physiography. 
Any school geography. 



CHAPTER X 

GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE INTERMOUNTAIN 

WEST 

The great intermountain section of the United States is 
essentially alike in its geological growth. In general the 
climate and the soil are alike, in spite of the minor differ- 
ences that occur. The valleys are similar, though they, of 
course, vary in size and shape. 

Rock. Throughout all the West, the mountains are 
composed largely of sedimentary rock. In western Utah, 
most of Nevada, and southern Idaho, limestone is most 
prevalent, with here and there small areas of sandstone, 
quartzite, and shale. In eastern Utah, western Colorado, 
and adjacent Wyoming, shales are common. 

This sedimentary formation shows that during the early 
geological periods this whole western section was a sea or 
an arm of the ocean. This ocean continued for a long period 
of time; for, in many places, several thousand feet of lime- 
stone are exposed. It is estimated that this limestone prob- 
ably did not form much faster than one foot in a thousand 
years. Associated with the limestone is much granite, sand- 
stone, and shale, materials which do not form much more 
rapidly than limestone. 

The great Rocky Mountain chain is also largely sedimen- 
tary with granite outcroppings in various sections, notably 
in parts of Colorado and Montana. Much of Idaho, Oregon, 
and Washington has been covered with a great basaltic 
lava sheet. 

Land Formation. After the western section had been 
covered with water for ages there came a time when the sec- 
tion yielded and part of the area was raised above the water. 



76 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

It began to be weathered by the atmospheric agencies and 
contributed part of its mass to the rock which was being 
formed in the water. This deformation did not occur all at 
once, but continued through a long period. Sometimes a 
slight lowering set in, so that the area at one time above 
water was at another time under the water and received an 
additional deposit. 

Mountain Growth in the West. The land which was 
brought up above the sea formed mountains or plateaus. 
The first mountains raised in this section were the Rockies, 
followed by the Uinta Mountains and the Sierra Nevadas. 
A little later the Wasatch ranges were heaved above the 
ocean. Inland seas were formed about the islands raised. 
Some of these inland seas were drained, some were filled up, 
and others largely evaporated. The reaction which took 
place in this adjustment of the crust of the earth resulted in 
the forming of many of the valleys which are in this section. 
It must not be thought that this movement went on rapidly, 
for it probably developed no faster than it is going on at 
present. It is thought by good authority that our moun- 
tains are being raised two or three feet a century. 

The mountains of the Great Basin are largely block 
mountains; that is, the thick sediments of the Great Basin 
were broken into blocks which in the re-adjustment were 
tipped or tilted so they show the fault along one side, 
making a steep slope on the fault side and a more gradual 
one on the other. If a series of layers sloping upward should 
break, letting one half drop, a deep V-shaped hollow would 
be formed. The faulted side would be steep. This condi- 
tion is about what is found in the ranges of Utah, Nevada, 
and southern Idaho. In the Wasatch fault there was a dis- 
placement of about four thousand feet near Salt Lake City. 
The other displacements were larger or smaller but similar. 
In the case of the Colorado and Columbia plateaus the up- 
lift was more uniform. On this account the areas are more 



OEOLOOICAL HISTORY OF INTERMOUNTAIN WEST 77 

nearly flat. The greatest irregularities are due to stream 
action, which washes out gullies. 

Valleys. Because the fault lines run mostly north and 
south, the mountain ranges tend to run in the same direc- 
tion. For the same reason most of the valleys are longer 
from north to south than from east to west. The valleys 
may be large or small, but are usually of intermediate size. 

The useful valleys in the section may all be put into two 
classes. Valleys like Bear Lake Valley, San Luis Valley, 
Humboldt Valley, and Salt Lake Valley have been the result 
of diastrophism, or great earth changes; the valleys of Green 
River, Snake River, Platte River, and Colorado River have 
been formed by river erosion. 

The useful part of the western area for agricultural pur- 
poses is largely confined to the valleys. The character of 
the soil in the valley largely depends on the character of the 
rock in the mountains surrounding it. There is little soil 
in the western area that is being used where it was formed. 
The soil was disintegrated from the rocks on the highlands 
and carried to the lowlands. In this way many of the val- 
leys were filled with an alluvial layer rich in plant food. 

Alkali. Some of the valleys, however, contain heavy 
clay soils devoid of organic material but bearing large per- 
centages of alkali salts. One ocean arm shut off by land 
occupied eastern Utah, western Colorado, and southwestern 
Wyoming. When the climate became arid, evaporation 
exceeded the rainfall and the water disappeared as vapor. 
This evaporation left considerable salt in the beds of the in- 
land seas. When erosion began, the salt was leached into 
the soils of the bottom of the valleys or washed into lakes 
of the region. A large part of the mineral in Great Salt 
Lake came from this source. 

Lakes Bonneville and Lahontan. In a later period, after 
the valleys and mountains of our sections were formed, 



78 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

climatic conditions so changed as to give a materially in- 
creased precipitation which resulted in filling the lower basins 
with water. This change in climatic conditions resulted in 
periods of glaciation in the higher altitudes. The waters 
thus formed contributed to the lakes of Bonneville and Lahon- 
tan. During the Bonneville period a thick accumulation 
was deposited over its area. In these deposits are located 
the richer valleys of western Utah. 

In the case of Bonneville, the water continued to rise 
until a lake more than a thousand feet deep covered an area 
of nearly twenty thousand square miles. At this period 
the lake was tapped from the north at Red Rock pass near 
Oxford, Idaho, giving it an outlet which continued for a long 
period of time. The outlet lowered the surface of the lake 
about 250 feet. The remainder of the lake down to the 
present Salt Lake has been lost entirely by evaporation. 
Water marks show the beach lines where the water stood at 
various levels. The history of Lahontan in Nevada is similar 
except that it had no outlet. 

Lake-formed Soils. During the lake period the wash- 
ings from the valleys and mountains around contributed 
largely to the filling of this lake. In many places this filling 
is hundreds of feet thick. This old lake bed has afforded 
the richest valleys and the best farming areas in the states 
of Utah and Nevada and at the same time has formed great 
areas of desert and worthless country. Benches, or deltas, 
consisting largely of gravel, lie near the canyons where the 
still water caused immediate settling. Sandy and loamy ma- 
terial was deposited around the sides of the valleys, forming 
a middle belt, while clay reached the valley bottoms. The 
middle belt is much the best farming land, because it is 
free from alkali and contains little gravel. The benches of 
the whole West are largely gravel deltas where the streams 
dropped the heaviest particles when they flowed into the 
lakes. The valley bottoms, where alkali collects in heavy 



GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF INTERMOUNTAIN WEST 79 

soil, are likely to be alkaline or to become so, if higher lands 
are overirrigated. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What kinds of rock are most common in the West? 

2. What are block mountains? How were they formed? 

3. How were mountain valleys formed? 

4. What is alkah? 

5. Where did it originate? 

6. What are the evidences that the Great Basin once held lakes? 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. Look up diagrams of river valleys and diastrophic valleys. Visit 

some, if near either. Model in clay. Carve out for river 
valley. Make a fault for diastrophic valley, and then fill in 
with loose earth. 

2. Find diagrams or pictures of waterfalls. Discuss how they ar3 

changing the earth. If near one, visit it. If not, make a 

small model. 
S. Collect fossils. Explain what they teach. 
4. In clay or sand model out a basin. Pour in water. Agitate 

gently to make small waves. Observe beach hues. Cause a 

small stream to run into lake. Note the delta. This shows 

action of old lakes on the surface of the land. 

REFERENCES 

Any textbook of geology. 

Most textbooks of physiography. 

Most school geographies. 



CHAPTER XI 
SOIL FORMATION 

Soils are the earthy material in which plants have their 
anchorage and from which they obtain their water and part 
of their food. They are in reality disintergrated rock inti- 
mately mixed with varying quantities of decaying plant and 
animal residues. They are derived from the native rocks by 
a complex process known as weathering. The agents at 
work in these processes are changes of temperature, the 
action of air, water, ice and plant and animal life. These are 
continually modifying the earth's surface. 

Temperature Changes. Probably the greatest factor in 
soil formation is change of temperature; for, by it huge rocks 
are torn from their mooring and then broken into fragments. 
It is a well-known fact that most substances expand when 
heated and contract when cooled. Now, most rocks are 
built up of a number of different minerals. These, when 
heated, expand and contract unequally; hence parts are 
put under a strain which at times is sufficient to cause cracks 
of varying size. Throughout the long hot days of summer, 
the rocks are heated to a comparatively high temperature, 
as the boy realizes who has chased barefoot over their sur- 
face in quest of grasshoppers, butterflies, or wild flowers. 
At night they are cooled again. This continual heating and 
cooling gradually causes small crevices to appear in even 
the most resistant rock. In time these become filled with 
dust and water. When the cold nights of autumn come, 
this water freezes. Water, when freezing, expands with a 
force that is almost irresistible, as broken water pipes each 
winter bear witness. When the crevices of the rocks are 
filled with water, the freezing has sufficient force to break 

80 



SOIL FORMATION 



81 



off rock fragments. At times huge rocks break loose and, 
if on the mountain side, roll into the valley below where 
they are slowly ground into smaller and smaller particles 
by various other processes. The speed with which rock 

weathers varies greatly in 
different localities, as is shown 
by the fact that Cleopatra's 
Needle, the monument brought 
from Egypt and set up in 
Central Park, New York, some 
forty years ago, has suffered 
much more during the few 
years that it has stood there 
than during the centuries it 
stood in Egypt. In the arid 
West the wide daily fluctua- 
tions of temperature are potent 
factors in the disintegration of 
rock and rock material. 

The Atmosphere. After 

Figure 24. — Changes in temperature 4-Uck -rnnlra Vta^rck htaan V\i^r\h-ci-rt 
graduallywear away the most resistant T^ne TOCKS naVC OeCU OrOKeU 

B^t-c^o'Sf^''8&v\'Q.'r) into small pieces they become 

a prey to the atmosphere, 
which, "when looked at as a whole, has only exceptional 
calms, usually being in motion either as the gentle breeze, 
the cyclonic wind, or the restless tornado, but always in 
motion. These movements do not tamely confine themselves 
to horizontal paths, but the gases rise and plunge, pursue 
broad curves and narrow spirals, and would appear, to an eye 
that could see them from above, a tumult, like the sea in 
storm. If we add to these mechanical operations the effi- 
cient chemical function of the atmosphere, we shall be ready 
to agree that it is one of the most powerful agencies that 
helps to mold and fashion the quality of the outer parts of 
our earth." 




82 WE8TERN AGRICULTURE 

Wind. Wind picks up and transports the loose sand and 
dirt from the high to the low places, ever grinding it finer and 
finer as it goes. There have been, in Colorado, times when 
sand drifts a foot high have been piled on a railroad track in 
half an hour, thirteen carloads of sand being removed from 




Figure 25. — The action of wind. White Valley, western Utah. 

a single platform on one occasion. The soils of the famous 
Palouse wheat regions of eastern Washington, eastern 
Oregon, and northern Idaho, were probably formed in just 
this manner. The effect of wind is not confined to the trans- 
porting of sand from one part of the country to another; 
but the sharp grains of sand are, while in the air, ground 
against each other, and blown against the surface of rocks 
with such force that cliffs are slowly worn away. We often 
see, in the mountains, places where winds have carved from 
rock fantastic shapes by the continuous impact of sand. 
Indeed the sand blast is such an effective agent that it is 
used to-day in many of the arts where a hard surface is to 
be ground down. 

The effectiveness of this agent is well illustrated in the 
facts that the telegraph wire along the Trans-Caspian Rail- 



SOIL FORMATION 83 

way has had to be renewed after eleven years, for the con- 
tinuous impact of the sand had reduced the wire to one half 
its original diameter. It is also found necessary to protect 
by means of piles of rock or short, additional posts the 
telegraph poles along the Southern Pacific Railway through 
the San Bernadino pass in southern California, in order to 
save them from the action of the driving sands. In the 
humid regions, the soil is protected by a dense growth of 
vegetation, but in the arid regions the exposed sands are at 
the mercy of the winds. 

Furthermore, the wind often uproots trees which have 
grown between rocks on mountain sides, tearing off consider- 
able quantities of rock which tumble into the valley below. 

Oxidation. Besides the physical actions, the atmosphere 
has another action known as chemical action. In this the 
rocks are not only changed in form but in composition. 
When iron is exposed to a moist atmosphere, it becomes 
coated with rust and increases in size. When the oxygen of 
the air gains access to the crevices of the rock, iron and some 
other constituents slowly oxidize and pass from firm, resist- 
ant rock to a loose, noncoherent mass which may be readily 
acted upon by other forces. The atmosphere also furnishes 
various acids, which, in connection with water, slowly dis- 
solve parts of the rock. 

Solvent Action of Water. Even pure water may be re- 
garded as an almost universal solvent, there being few sub- 
stances that are not soluble in it to at least a slight extent. 
When water becomes charged with various substances from 
the soil and atmosphere, its solvent powers greatly increase, 
and it exerts a force in soil formation not to be neglected. 
Water charged with carbon dioxide either from the atmos- 
phere or from the decay of plants and animals, has the 
power of dissolving various rocks. 

Running Water. Looking into a stream of running 
water, a person can see, at almost any time, grains of sand 



84 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

and rocks of various sizes sliding and rolling along the bot- 
tom of the stream. These grind against one another and 
against rocks in the bed and banks of the stream, slowly 
but continually reducing the rocks to particles. The speed 
with which this result is accomplished varies with the 
volume of water and the speed of the current.* Large, 
swift streams are able to carry large rocks and quickly 
scour out their beds, whereas slow streams may carry sand or 
only clay. All streams are always transporting some sand, 
rock, or soil from the higher to the lower levels. Some 
natural barrier may act as a retainer to the water, causing a 
lake which acts as a natural settling basin for the water, 
the rock debris being deposited on the bottom. If this 
process continues long enough, the lake' fills with soil, and 
the water flows on over the plain only to continue its work 
of soil formation in some other place. 

Lake Bonneville. Many of our western soils are formed 
under just such conditions. At the time of Lake Bonne- 
ville the mountain rivers and small streams poured their 
waters, loaded with the weatherings of the rock, gravel, 
sand, silt, and clay from the nearby mountain ranges, into 
the still waters of the lake. The gravel and coarser material 
deposited first in the beaches and later the sand and then 
the silt; the sand and the silt settled farther out in the lake, 
the clay reaching the middle. 

Many of the best agricultural soils of the West were 
formed in this way, and owe their great depth and great 
fertihty to this method of formation. 

Action of Waves. The wind often lashes the water of 
lakes against their shores, and in so doing rolls rocks up and 
down their beaches. This action together with the various 

*The carrying power of a stream increases proportional to the sixth 
power of the increase in speed of the stream. — i. e., if a stream doubles 
its velocity, its power to move earth is not simply doubled but is sixty- 
four times what it was before. 



SOIL FORMATION 



85 



suspended substances in the surf, slowly wears away the 
rock. Throughout the Great Basin the history of the extinct 
lakes may be read by the wearing effect their waters had 
upon the surrounding mountains. Along all shore lines 
considerable disintegration takes place. 




Figure 26. — The action of waves upon rocks. Lake Bonneville marks on moun- 
tains three or four miles east of Garfield Beach. 



Ice. In the early geological periods, huge sheets of ice 
covered many parts of North America. These flowed slowly 
from the highlands into the lowlands. On their downward 
journey, they froze around huge boulders which they dragged 
slowly along, grinding one another and the underlying rock 
into a fine powder. Rocks from the overhanging cliffs were 
caught up by the surface of the glacier and transported to 
lower levels. Ice probably took a very insignificant part 
in the soil formation of the intermountain region, although 
in other districts it has played a very important one. 

Plants as Soil Builders. Even while the rocks are appar- 
rently sound, some are covered with lichens and mosses. 
These small plants send their roots into the minute crevices 



86 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

of the rocks and by means of their root acids dissolve their 
required mineral foods from the rock. The plants die and 
are replaced by others, their tissues being decomposed by 
microscopic plants. These bacteria in their activities form 
acids which attack the rock particles; they also obtain from 
the atmosphere their required nitrogen; and, when they die 
and their bodies disintergrate, they add to the rock residues 
a combined form of the essential element, nitrogen. These 
are followed by higher plants, which send their roots deep 
into the crevices; as the roots increase in diameter they 
force the rocks apart. In this manner plants not only 
decompose rocks, but they continually add to the soil organic 
matter which, when partly decayed, is known as humus, 
imparting a black color to the soil. 

Animals as Soil Builders. Earthworms, burrowing ani- 
mals, and the like are continually working over the soil and 
mixing organic matter with it. These, in some regions, are 
important factors in soil formation. At times they are pres- 
ent in sufficient numbers in arid soils to interfere mate- 
rially with the water-holding capacity of the soil, though 
they are usually of small importance in western soils. 

Soil and Native Rock. The native rock is slowly ground 
into fine sand, which, when thoroughly mixed with organic 
matter, constitutes the soil. It is thus evident that there is 
an intimate relationship between the native rocks and the 
soil resulting from them. In the recent reports of the United 
States Geological Survey are descriptions of phosphate beds 
throughout this western section of the country; recently the 
occurrence of potash deposits has been reported; and our 
mountains abound in limestone rock. Phosphates and pot- 
ash carry two of the essential plant foods, and limestone is 
required in order that the soil remain a good home for the 
various plants. We should, therefore, expect to find, and 
do find, large amounts of these substances in western soils, 
which are largely, therefore, intensely productive. 



SOIL FORMATION 87 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is soil? From what is it made? 

2. Name the forces that cause rock-weathering. 

3. How does change of temperature disintegrate rock? 

4. In what ways does wind wear rock away? 

5. How does oxygen affect rock? 

6. How does the action of water by solution differ from that of 

running water? 

7. Locate and describe Lakes Lahontan and Bonneville. 

8. How were soils affected by these lakes? 

9. In what way are plants and animals soil builders? 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. Go for a trip along a stream. Note that the rocks are decaying 

and that the streams are transporting soil. If possible, learn 
how the soils were deposited in the present place. 

2. Break off a small chip from some soft rock, such as sandstone or 

limestone, and examine carefully the sides and edges of the 
same. Place it in a bottle with water and shake violently for 
a few, minutes. Draw off the water and examine the rock. 
What has taken place? 

3. Weigh a quart fruit jar and then fill with very muddy water. 

Allow the bottle and contents to stand undisturbed over night. 
If it has not settled during the night, add to it a few cubic centi- 
meters of sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) or a piece of lime and 
allow to stand until clear. Decant off the clear water. Dry 
and weigh the bottle with the sediment. Calculate the percent- 
age of soil in the water. 

4. Map the area in which you live, to show kinds of soils. 

REFERENCES 

Textbooks of geology, physiography, and geography. 

Soils, Lyon, Fippin and Buckman. 

Soils, Hilgard. 

The Soil, King. 

Dry-Farming, Widtsoe. 

Principles of Agronomy, Harris and Stewart. 

Soils and Soil Fertility, Whitson and Walster. 

Origin and Nature of Soils, Shaler. Part I. Twelfth Report of 

the U. S. Geological Survey. 
Fertilizers and Crops, Van Slyke. 
Soils, Fletcher. 



CHAPTER XII 
SOIL TEXTURE AND STRUCTURE 

Soil Types. Soils are variously classified. One classi- 
fication is: (1) residual soils, (2) colluvial soils, and (3) 
alluvial soils. Residual soils are formed by the weathering 
of the parent rock which may be found at varying depths 
underlying the soil. They are commonly found in high 
plateaus, such as the Colorado plateau, extending through- 
out much of southern Utah and western Colorado. Collu- 
vial soils are those which have been moved some distance 
from their place of formation as a result of rolling downhill 
or being moved by the action of wind or rain. Alluvial soil 
is the material deposited from running streams. Soil formed 
in this way fills the low-lying valleys of the intermountain 
country, deposited by the mountain streams. The well- 
formed deltas at the mouths of the mountain canyons are 
common illustrations. 

There are also other ways of classifying soils. For 
example, they may be classified as (1) sand, (2) sandy loam, 
(3) loam, (4) clay loam, (5) clay, and (6) peat, depending 
upon the physical composition of the soil, i. e., the arrange- 
ment and varying quantities of the several sizes and kinds 
of particles. 

Soil Texture. The arrangement of these soil particles in 
the soil in varying quantities gives rise to the several kinds of 
soil as indicated above. The term soil texture refers to the 
soil type. Just as we speak of cloth as having a fine or 
coarse texture, so we may speak of soil as having fine or 
coarse texture, depending upon the size of the individual 
grains. The texture of the soil particles depends upon the 

88 



SOIL TEXTURE AND STRUCTURE 



89 



varying quantities of sand, silt, and clay in the soil as 
indicated below in Tables III and IV. 

In the Juab county soil there are a greater number of the 
smaller grains, such as clay, and fine and medium silt, 
which compose a somewhat compact clay loam. With the 







Table III.- 


-Juab County Farm. 








Depth in feet 


1st 


2nd 


3rd 


4th 


5th 


6th 


7th 


8th 


9th 


lOth 


Medium sand 
Fine sand . . . 
Coarse silt. . . 
Medium silt. 

Fine silt 

Fine clay 


8.93 
20.05 
21.97 
15.23 
13.25 
15.73 


8.99 
16.48 
19.95 
16.78 
14.88 
16.68 


8.73 
12.38 
22.53 
17.53 
14.47 
18.62 


11.36 
18.87 
19.06 
17.25 
8.93 
20.68 


15.69 
19.48 
23.88 
15.43 
8.01 
12.41 


8.93 
27.40 
22.27 
13.51 

7.11 
10.03 


16.28 
25.00 
21.88 
13.73 
8.68 
12.19 


12.60 
22.52 
21.91 
17.03 
9.74 
13.29 


23.57 
26.09 
19.25 
10.04 
6.56 
20.95 


15.48 
21.45 
18.63 
15.77 
11.71 
13.36 



Table IV. — San Juan County Farm. 



Depth in feet 



Medium sand 
Fine sand . . 
Coarse silt. . 
Medium silt 

Fine silt 

Fine clay . . . 



1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 



11.07 

50.21 

12.80 

8.18 

5.47 

9.77 



13.54 
45.21 
11.40 
7.94 
6.27 
11.10 



12.45 

46.10 

16.78 

9.22 

5.26 

5.64 



13.80 

45.38 

13.58 

9.72 

5.51 

9.92 



6th 



13.31 
32.39 
16.50 
14.37 
9.14 
12.02 



7th 



18.34 
36.43 
13.87 
19.03 
9.19 
14.94 



Uh 



9.57 

40.48 

16.55 

9.46 

7.39 

12.33 



9 th 



10.19 
42.29 
15.71 
8.55 
6.41 
13.84 



lOth 



San Juan county soil, on the other hand, there is a greater 
number of the medium and fine sand particles, composing 
a coarse-grained, sandy soil. The latter soil is easier to 
cultivate; the plow enters the soil easily and scours readily. 
As the soil becomes heavier, i. e., contains a greater number 
of the finer particles, great care must be taken to prepare 
the seed bed when the soil is in the proper condition — when 
it is neither too wet nor too dry. The farmer speaks of the 
sandy soil as a light soil, while clay is called a heavy soil, 
although sand weighs more than clay. 

The texture of a given soil depends in a large measure upon 
the parent rock out of which the soil was originally formed. 
The weathering of sandstone results in a sandy soil of coarse 



90 



WEI:iTERN AGRICULTURE 



texture. The weathering of shale, on the other hand, makes 
a heavy clay soil of fine texture. In the arid West many of 
the soils are derived from the intermixture of several kinds 
of weathered rock, producing soils of all degrees of texture. 
Soil Structure. The soil must be well supplied with 





^^glll 


X ; '- -,1^?|^B 






^m 






B 



Figure 27. — Good deep soil. 



plant food, but this fact does not relieve the farmer of the 
necessity of getting his soil into proper physical condition 
which greatly influences the temperature of the soil, the 
food supply, the penetration of the plant roots, and the 
circulation of soil air necessary to the bacterial life of the 
soil. This physical condition is structure; it has nothing to 
do with the size of the particles. 

How to Modify Soil Structures. The rock particles in 
the soil are still subject to the same weathering influences 
by which they were formed and are by them being continu- 
ally changed in texture to a slight extent. The farmer has 
little control over the texture of the soil. Sandy soil 
remains sandy; clay soil remains clay. Much, however, may 



SOIL TEXTURE AND STRUCTURE 



91 



be done to modify the structure so as to increase its crop- 
producing power. The structure may be modified by plow- 
ing or cultivating at the proper time. If the soil is plowed 
or cultivated when too wet, the heavier clay soil has a 




Figure 28. — This picture was taken a few days after a heavy rain, previous to which 
there had been thorough cultivation. Note the baking and cracks resulting 
from a lack of proper physical condition. 



tendency to puddle, or break into a hard impervious mass 
unsuited for crop production. 

Fall plowing gives the weathering agencies, such as frost 
and water, a better chance to penetrate the soil and thus 
render possible the preparation of a good seed bed. The 
presence of water-soluble salts also materially modifies the 
structure of the soil. Thus it is somewhat common in the 
arid West to have very coarse-textured soil, similar to sand, 
consisting mostly of limestone particles cemented together 
by the water-soluble salts. Some of the alkali salts, such as 
sodium carbonate, or black alkali, cause the soil particles to 
run together, forming a hard, impervious mass which can best 
be destroyed by the addition of gypsum. 



92 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



An acid soil may be improved by the addition of ordi- 
nary limestone. Many soils have a tendency to run together 
when deficient in organic matter. This fault may be rem- 
edied by addition of 
barnyard manure or 
by plowing under of 
plant residues or 
green manure. The 
soil texture may be 
modified by thor- 
ough, continued cul- 
tivation, such as is 
carried on in the 
production of the 
mulch in dry-farming 
operations. 

Baking of Soils. 
Some soils, on ac- 
count of a deficiency 
in organic matter 
and limestone, have 
a tendency to bake, 
i. e., become hard and 
compact. Although 
our arid soils are not 
rich in organic mat- 
ter, they are exceptionally rich in limestone and, as a result, 
baking of soils is not common with them. Black alkali soils 
have a tendency to bake, but this may be readily overcome 
by the addition of gypsum. If the baking of a soil is caused 
by the absence of humus, provision should be made for the 
addition of barnyard manure or for the plowing under of 
green manure, such as a crop of alfalfa, clover, or cowpeas. 
Soil and Subsoil. In a humid section the native plant 
roots penetrate into the soil to a uniform depth of twenty to 



^^, 


^^ 


ik^ 


BlK53JilSw|^'"^ »>^ 


'Ih^M 


■Hi 




^■B 


^H 




^^^H 


^H 


^^^"'^'^'^^^^^^d 


HMj 


B 


^^jJH 


HH 


jjjH 


.. 






&*^^*«ii 


j^w ^j« '"'* 


mi 


'" t ^*«"fji^^^i^iijii^^^ i 


H|gkHgHa| 


H^^^ 


^i^^^^nH 


HER 


■H 




n 


^Mj^Q 



Figure 29. — Soil and subsoil. 



SOIL TEXTURE AND STRUCTURE 



93 



twenty-four inches, and, when they decay, there is a char- 
acteristic change in color below this point. The under part 
is called subsoil. The surface soil is dark colored, while the 
subsoil is light in color. No such change in color is noticed 

in soils of the arid 
region, because our 
native plant roots 
penetrate to much 
greater depths. 
This penetration of 
the plant roots is 
made necessary by 
their search for 
moisture and possi- 
ble by the almost 
uniform texture 
and structure of the 
arid soils to consid- 
erable depth, as in- 
dicated in the above 
table. This uni- 
formity renders 
possible deeper 
plowing in the arid 
region than in a humid section where the turning up of the 
subsoil renders the soil nonproductive. 

Influence of Moisture Content. The moisture content 
of the soil is frequently the limiting factor of crop production 
in the arid regions. The amount of water retained in the 
soil is dependent in a large degree upon the soil texture. A 
fine-textured soil is capable of retaining more moisture than 
is a coarse-textured one, on account of the greater surface 
exposure; but a soil of too fine texture is not desirable, since 
the circulation of the soil air and the free penetration of the 
plant roots would be impeded. 




Figure 30. — Root system of alsike clover plant, show- 
ing immense growth of roota which are so beneficial 
in enrichment of soil by the clover crop. 



94 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

Productivity of the Soil. The proper physical condition 
of the soil is of prime importance. It is essential to have a 
soil rich in plant food, but this alone will not insure crops. 
A soil having the proper physical condition holds more 
moisture and is better able to receive and to give it up to 
plants. Such a soil is suitable to the important bacterial 
processes that convert the plant food into a condition suit- 
able for assimilation by plants. It permits the free circu- 
lation of the soil air and thus assists in putting the soil, 
the home of the plant, into a better sanitary condition. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Classify soils. 

2. What is a soil type? Name the types. 

3. What is soil texture? Texture? 

4. How may they be modified? 

5. How may baking be controlled? 

6. What is subsoil? State its importance. 

7. What makes a soil fertile? 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. Collect various kinds of soil. Put in bottles, label and preserve. 

2. Wet some heavy soil — clay or clay loam. To some add fine 

manure; to some, lime; to some, sand; and to some, nothing. 
Set to dry. Note results. 

REFERENCES 

Soils, Hilgard. 

The Physics of Agriculture, King. 
Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. I. 
Soils, Lyon, Fippin, and Buckman. 
Fertilizers and Crops, Van Slyke. 
Principles of Agronomy, Harris and Stewart. 
Soils and Soil Fertility, Whitson and Walster. 



CHAPTER XIII 
PLANT FOOD IN SOILS 

Food Supply. The physical condition of the soil is of 
great importance in crop production; but it must not be 
forgotten that the plant, like the animal, must be furnished 
with a food supply. The animal needs not only sufficient 
food, but a variety of food in order that it may thrive. 
Likewise, there are certain substances which all plants must 
have in order that they may grow normally and reproduce 
their kind. The plant secures its foods from three sources : 
(1) the water, (2) the air, and (3) the soil. Most plants are 
largely water, from 70 to 90 per cent. Thus 76 per cent of 
the sugar beet is water, and 4.75 per cent is ash, the 
remainder consisting of carbohydrates and nitrogenous mat- 
ter. In a consideration of the plant food, it must be kept 
clearly in mind that there are ten elements which are abso- 
lutely essential to plant growth. These substances are car- 
bon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, 
calcium, magnesium, iron, and sulphur. 

Carbon is an essential substance in all organic matter. 
Starch, for example, which is a common vegetable product, 
contains 44 per cent of carbon, which is obtained by the 
plant through its leaves from the air. When food is eaten 
by animals, this carbon is used in the various animal pro- 
cesses, and one of its decomposition products is carbonic 
acid gas, which is thrown off by the animal into the atmo- 
sphere. This substance is of no use to animals, but is of 
very great importance to the plant, which utilizes it in 
building up much of its tissue. The. conversion of the car- 
bonic acid gas into the compounds which are found in the 
plant takes place in its leaves in the presence of the green 

95 



96 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

coloring matter of the leaf, the so-called leaf-green, or chlo- 
rophyll. It is also necessary that a certain amount of heat 
and light be furnished in order that this process of fixation 
of carbon may take place. This process is spoken of as 
photosynthesis. 

Hydrogen and Oxygen. Water is composed of two 
elements, hydrogen and oxygen. As we have already noted, 
from 70 to 90 per cent of the plant consists of water. These 
two elements, therefore, in combination, serve as a very 
important part of the food of plants; but, in addition to their 
use in the form of water, they also serve other highly important 
functions. Hydrogen and oxygen, for example, are neces- 
sary in the formation of starch and other plant products. 
Starch consists of 44 per cent of carbon, the other 56 per 
cent being hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen in the 
starch, of course, comes originally from the water. Oxygen 
may be obtained by the plant either from the atmosphere or 
from water. Hydrogen and oxygen are important also in 
the formation of many other plant organs and products. 

Nitrogen is also an essential plant food. It forms a' part 
of protoplasm which is found in all living matter. Without 
nitrogen there could be no life of any kind. This important 
plant food is deficient in many of our soils. It is absorbed 
by the plant through the roots from the soil in the form of 
combined nitrogen, principally as nitrates. The conditions 
in the soil that are favorable to the production of these 
nitrates are, therefore, very important. The lack of 
nitrogen in the soil results in a reduction of the leaf surface 
of the plant and in a stunting of the stem growth. It 
results in the early flowering of the plant and an attempt to 
reproduce seed, in much the same way that a deficiency of 
water would act upon the plant. An excessive amount of 
nitrogen, results in a weakened condition of the plant and 
renders it less resistant to the inroads of plant diseases and 
insect pests. 



PLANT FOOD IN SOILS 97 

Phosphorus, another important food element, is found 
in all living matter. Without it, new cells cannot be pro- 
duced. Therefore, growth cannot take place in the absence 
of this substance. In addition, it seems that phosphorus is 
necessary for the production of leaf-green, or chlorophyll, 
the presence of which is so necessary for the proper utihza- 
tion of the carbon as a food of the plant. In the absence 
of phosphorus, neither sugar nor starch is formed in the 
leaf of the plant, growth ceases, and the leaves turn yellow. 
It is used by all plants in large quantities and has a ten- 
dency to concentrate in the seeds of plants, the more salable 
products of the farm. Phosphorus is very deficient in most 
of our soils; hence, with injudicious methods of farming, there 
is a tendency to exhaust this plant food by selling it as grain 
from the farm. The farmer should, therefore, consider 
means of conserving this element. Phosphorus is the limit- 
ing factor of crop production in many soils in America. 

Calcium. In the absence of calcium, there is the failure 
of the normal production of leaf-green, or chlorophyll; the 
leaves turn yellow and starch is not converted into sugar. 
It seems that the ferments which cause this conversion into 
sugar are not produced in the absence of calcium. In addi- 
tion, calcium probably plays a very important part in the 
neutralization of acids in the plant juices. It is essential 
for the production of the nucleus and the chlorophyll bodies. 

Many soils are deficient in calcium, and, as a result, are 
acidic, or sour. Before they can be raised to normal pro- 
ductivity, such soils must be corrected with limestone, which 
is the cheapest form in which calcium may be obtained. It 
is of special importance in the soil, since it favors the pro^ 
cess called nitrification, that is, the process by which nitrates 
are produced in the soil. These nitrates, as we have seen, 
are needed to furnish the plant with its supply of nitrogen. 

Magnesium. The plant seems to develop normally in 
the absence of magnesium until it attempts to produce seeds; 

7— 



98 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

Init, if magnesium is then absent, the flowers may not form, 
or, if they do form, the fruit is not set. Thus, a very small 
amount may be all that is necessary until the time of flower- 
ing, when large demands are made for this substance. 
Although magnesium is an essential plant food, if it be present 
in the soil in too large quantities, especially in the absence 
of calcium, it acts as a poison. Calcium seems to offset this 
poisonous action of magnesium. In addition, it occurs in 
some soils in the form of magnesium sulphate (Epsom salts), 
a water-soluble substance, and as such is one of the more 
common alkalies. 

Potassium, or potash, is a substance which occurs in the 
ash of plants in large quantities. The pioneers of the inter- 
mountain West made use of the ash of plants in their soap 
making, the potassium occurring in the ash in such large 
quantities that it could be leached out for this purpose. It 
is demanded by all plants in large quantities and especially 
by such plants as the sugar beet. In the absence of potas- 
sium, there is a cessation of growth. The plants seem to 
have a normal green color, but no starch or nitrogenous 
material is formed. Potassium, therefore, seems to play 
some part in the formation of starch, sugars, and nitro- 
genous compounds. The presence of potassium in the plant 
also seems to hasten and perfect its maturing and to assist 
it in a better utilization of moisture, which, as we know, is 
the limiting factor of crop production in the West. Potas- 
sium in the soil seems to help also in the retaining of mois- 
ture. Clay loams are usually rich in this element. 

Iron, though demanded by all plants in very small 
amounts, is essential in some way in the production of leaf- 
green, although not present in this compound. In the ab- 
sence of iron, leaf-green is not produced. The red coloring 
matter of blood contains iron. It occurs in the soil in such 
large quantities and is utilized by all plants in such small 
amounts that its supply will never become exhausted. 



PLANT FOOD IN SOILS 99 

Sulphur occurs as an essential constituent of many of the 
plant compounds. In some of its combinations it gives to 
such substances as onions and garlic their characteristic 
odor and taste. It is present in horse-radish and mustard 
oils, and is an essential constituent of some of the more im- 
portant nitrogenous compounds found in plants. 

It is thus seen that plants, like animals, need food, and, 
like animals, they need a variety of food in order that they 
may thrive and reproduce a good yield of their kind. As 
Loew has aptly said, ''Every plant absolutely requires a 
certain minimum of each mineral nutrient, and, in most 
cases, besides this minimum, it takes up not only an excess 
of these various compounds, but also substances which are 
perhaps useful but not absolutely necessary for plant func- 
tions, such as sodium and silica." 

Summary. The plant foods may be divided into three 
classes depending upon their relative abundance and eco- 
nomic value. The first class consists of carbon, hydrogen, 
and oxygen. The carbon supply in the air is automatically 
maintained by the carbonic acid gas thrown off from the 
lungs of animals. Hydrogen and oxygen are obtained by 
the plant from the water of the soil, which is maintained in 
our soils by the rain and snow and is returned to the soil by 
the principles of dry-farming and by the application of irri- 
gation water. 

The second group includes calcium, magnesium, iron and 
sulphur, which are used by all plants in such small quanti- 
ties and of which so much exists in our soils that their supply 
will neyer become consumed, consequently they are rarely, 
if ever, added to the soil as plant foods. 

The third group consists of nitrogen, phosphorus, and 
potassium which are used by all plants in large quantities, 
and which exist so scantily in the soil that they may be 
easily exhausted. These substances, therefore, have great 
economic value; they are the essential constituents of the 



lOU WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

commercial fertilizers placed upon the market. The Ameri- 
can farmers spend about $100,000,000 annually for the 
purchase of these three plant foods. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Name the sources of plant food. 

2. Name the elements essential to plant growth. 

3. State the use of each in the plant. 

4. Give the approximate proportion of each found in plants. 

5. Which of these are most likely to be lacking? 

6. How may these deficiencies be made good? 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. Place a piece of filter paper in a large funnel. On this place a 

double handful of soil. Pour about a quart of water over this 
slowly in such a way as to wet the soil thoroughly. Catch what 
water passes through. Evaporate this. Explain results. 

2. Place a smgle handful of loam soil in porcelain or metal vessel. 

Heat strongly until the soil "burns." Explain. 

REFERENCES 

Plant Physiology, Duggar. 

Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture, Hopkins. 

Soils, Hilgard. 

Soils and Soil Fertility, Whitson and Walster. 

The Soil, King. 

Manures. Thorne. 

Fertilizers and Crops, Van Slykc. 

Principles of Agronomy, Harris and Stewart. 



CHAPTER XIV 
FERTILE SOILS 

Factors of Crop Production. In the consideration of soil 
fertility it should be kept in mind that there are six positive 
factors of crop production: (1) the seed, (2) the home of the 
plant, (3) heat, (4) light, (5) moisture, and (6) plant food. 
For best results no one of these six factors can be ignored. 
Each one is equally important. Some of them, however, 
are under better control of the farmer than others. Thus, 
the farmer has very little control over the light factor. 
Fortunately, however, the amount of light falling upon an 
acre of soil is sufficient for the production of many times the 
average yield of crops now obtained. The heat factor may 
be controlled to a certain extent by the farmer in securing a 
proper structure of his soil through the addition of organic 
matter, and by underdrainage. The home of the plant may 
also be kept in a more sanitary condition by the use of lime- 
stone and proper cultivation. Considerable has been done in 
recent years in the selection of better seed. In the arid 
West it is important that the soil moisture be conserved 
through the practice of the principles of dry-farming and 
irrigation. In the irrigated districts the moisture factor is 
under better control than in the humid districts. The last, 
or food factor, is the one that is under best control. 

Virgin Soils Fertile. A virgin soil when first turned by 
the plow is in a state of high fertility, that is, its crop-pro- 
ducing power for cultivated crops is at a maximum. Since 
such a soil has been producing native crops for indefinite 
periods of time, wliy is it that its power to produce culti- 
vated crops gradually decreases? As soon as the soil is 
formed by the weathering of the rock particles, microscopic 

101 



102 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

plants begin to grow upon the rock powder. These micro- 
scopic plants gradually give way to plants of a higher order. 
When the plants decay, their remains are added to the soil, 
and are incorporated with it. This process results in the 
production of a soil containing organic, or vegetable, matter 
from which none of the inorganic matter, or rock material, 
has been permanently removed. Thus, when nature pro- 
duces plants in native condition, there is no inorganic plant 
food removed from the soil and, in addition, there is con- 
siderable organic material produced largely from the car- 
bonic acid gas of the atmosphere which is added to the soil 
on the death of the plant. In like manner the decay of the 
native vegetation and the accumulation of leaves in forests 
produce a soil of high fertility. 

Crop Requirements. When the virgin soil is long culti- 
vated by man, these conditions are changed. Practically all 
the crop is removed from the soil; organic matter is not 
added to the soil; and, besides, much of the inorganic plant 
food is removed by the crop. 

The two most important plant foods are nitrogen and 
phosphorus, since they are the ones that are likely to be 
deficient in the soil and are the ones which have a market 
value and are the important constituents of commercial 
fertilizers. The crop requirements of the wheat, potato, 
and sugar beet plants for these substances are recorded 
in Table V. On the removal of the cultivated crops, such as 
wheat, potatoes, and sugar beets considerable amounts of 
these plant foods are taken out of the soil. Values of the 
plant foods removed with the crops are computed at the 
normal prices for which the elements may be purchased on the 
markets: nitrogen, fifteen cents a pound; phc)si)horus, three 
cents; and potassium, six cents. 

It is important to note fioni the following table tliat the 
phosphorus is concentrated in the grain, and, therefore, 
in the most salable products of the farm. When the wheat 



FERTILE SOILS 



103 



is sold from the farm, phospliorus is i-emoved in l.'ii-j.!;c (juau- 
tities. In grain crops such as wheat, two thirds of the nitro- 
gen, three fourths of the phosphorus, and one fourth of 
the potassium are found in the seed. If the grain is sold, 
these amounts are lost to the farmer; if the grain be fed to 
live stock on the farm, one fourth of the nitrogen, one 
fourth of the phosphorus, and very little of the potassium 
are retained by the animal. That is, three fourths of the 
nitrogen and phosphorus may, with care, be returned to 
the soil. There is, then, a constant loss of these essential 

Table V. — Crop Requirements 



Pniduct 


Pounds 


Market Value 


Kind 


Amount 


1 

2 


3 
O 


a 

3 

'i 
2 


a 

01 

o 


o 
M 


a 

3 


_3 

> 
'a 
o 
Eh 


Wheat 

Wheat straw 
Wheat crop . 


50 Bu. 
23^ T. 


71 

25 

96 

100 

100 


12 
4 
16 
13 
18 


13 

45 

58 

90 

157 


$10.65 
3.75 

14.40 
9.45 

15.00 


$00.36 
.12 

.48 
.39 
.54 


$0.78 
2.70 
3.48 
5.40 
9.42 


$11.79 

6.57 

18 36 


Potatoes. . . . 
Sugar beets . 


300 Bu. 
20 T. 


15.23 
24.96 



plant foods from the farm. It would seem to be clearly 
indicated that in order to keep the soil in a fertile con- 
dition we must do as nature has done — make provisions 
for the addition of organic matter to the soil and for 
the return to the soil of those plant foods which have 
been removed. 

Value of Rotation. In a permanent system of agricul- 
ture, it is necessary to practice a system of crop rotation. 
It must not be assumed, however, that a crop rotation alone 
will maintain the crop-producing power of the soil. It is 
difficult to conceive how such a system will add to the 
soil those plant foods, with the exception of nitrogen, which 
have been removed. There is a number of reasons why a 
crop rotation should be practiced. Probably the six most 



104 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

important are the f ollowinji; : (1) elimination of weeds, such, 
for example, as the elimination of June grass from the al- 
falfa fields in the intermountain region; (2) the better con- 
trol of insect pests; (3) use of a legume in order that the 
farmer may employ the free nitrogen of the air; (4) the 
introduction of the deep root crops, such as the alfalfa 
plant, which is undoubtedly the best subsoiler we have; 
(5) the varying demands of different crops upon the plant 
food supply. Thus, a maximum corn crop would remove 
nineteen pounds of potassium, while a corresponding sugar 
beet crop would remove one hundred and fifty-seven pounds. 
The alternation of such crops, therefore, would give a better 
chance for the liberation of this element from its insoluble 
compounds in the soil. A final reason is (6) an economical 
consideration, in that such a system provides for better uti- 
lization of machinery, labor, and irrigation water. 

Barnyard Manure. Since rotations alone can not keep 
up the fertility, some fertilizing substance must be added. 
Barnyard manure is undoubtedly the best fertilizing material 
available for the farm. The value of the manure produced 
on the farms of America is estimated at two and one third 
billions of dollars, and yet one third of this amount or 
$800,000,000 worth, is, each year, wilfully wasted on the 
farms. The manure is valuable from a physical, bacter- 
iological, and chemical point of view. It assists in convert- 
ing the soil into a better physical condition, so that the soil 
retains and delivers the moisture to the plant in times of 
drought better than soil not manured. At the Rotham- 
sted Station in England one plot has been treated with 
barnyard manure at the rate of 15.7 tons an acre yearly. 
Another plot has received mineral plant foods in about 
the same proportion as contained in the manure. The 
average yield of wheat on unfertilized land was 12.9 bushels, 
while that on the plot receiving mineral plant food was 
27.1 bushels, as opposed to 35.5 bushels for the plot receiv- 



FERTILE SOILS 105 

ing barnyard manure. These results are the average of 
fifty-five years and are, therefore, trustworthy and relia- 
ble and indicate quite clearly the crop-producing power 
of barnyard manure. These results also show that min- 
eral plant food can maintain the crop-producing power of 
the soil. 

The years 1893 and 1903 were abnormal years, the 
former being extremely dry, and the latter was very wet. 
The results obtained these years are indicated below in 
Table VI. 



Table VI.— Yield of Wheat 


in Bushels an Acre. (Rothamsted.) 




Unfertilized 


Farm Manure 


Mineral Plant Food 


1893 Dry Year. . 
1903 Wet Year.. 


9.8 

7.6 


34.3 

29.7 


21.8 

35.8 



The results clearly indicate that, though in normal years 
mineral plant food is fully as valuable as the manure, dur- 
ing an extremely dry year the barnyard manure gave the 
best results, on account, no doubt, of the great power of 
soil so treated to retain and deliver moisture to the plant. 
The manure is valuable for its plant food content also. A 
ton of barnyard manure contains ten pounds of nitrogen, 
two of phosphorus, and ten of potassium, which at the 
average market price of these elements, fifteen cents per 
pound for nitrogen, six cents per pound for potassium and 
twelve cents for phosphorus, makes a ton of barnyard ma- 
nure worth $2.34. The manure also supplies abundant food 
and energy for the bacteria of the soil. The decomposition 
of the organic matter brought about by bacterial action 
produces a number of organic acids which assist materially 
in rendering plant food available. 

Green Manuring. Since the quantity of barnyard ma- 
nure is limited, some substitute for its organic matter must 
be found. This end is accomplished by growing a crop for 



106 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

the express purpose of plowing it under while it is still green. 
Thus, in some sections of the country, the clover crop is 
grown in a rotation and plowed under. Such a crop serves 
as food for soil bacteria and readily undergoes decomposi- 
tion with the production of the organic acids so necessary 
to render plant food available for the higher plants. A 
crop grown for green manure should, if possible, be a legume 
in order to obtain the free atmospheric nitrogen in a com- 
bined form. Frequently a legume crop, called a cover 
crop, is grown in the orchard for the purpose of plowing 
under to increase the humus and nitrogen content of the 
orchard soil and to render other plant foods available. 

Limestone. Older soils are poorer than newer ones. 
In addition to the plant food removed from the soils by 
crops, the older soils, in some cases, have lost from their lime 
content until they are acidic, or sour. Such soils are non- 
productive, because the soil bacteria can not work to the 
greatest efficiency in soil that is acidic. Moreover, many 
of the higher orders of plants will not grow in such soil. 
The alfalfa plant and some other legumes, being lime-loving 
plants, will not thrive in an acidic soil. It thus becomes neces- 
sary to make large additions of limestone to the soil of many 
sections. Fortunately, most of the soils in the intermoun- 
tain country are so well supplied with Hmestone that the 
alfalfa plant and other legumes grow luxuriantly. 

Summary. There are, then, a number of important 
factors which determine the crop-producing power of the 
soil. The farmer must be constantly on the alert to exer- 
cise a favorable control over these factors wherever possible. 
If the soil is acidic in nature, this condition should be cor- 
rected by the addition of ground limestone; if the soil is 
heavily charged with alkali, it should be removed by drain- 
age. The farmer in the intermountain country should make 
better use of barnyard manure and green manure, and 
should practice a system of crop rotation. 



FERTILE SOILS 107 

QUESTIONS 

1. Name the six factors that determine plant growth. 

2. Which of these can man control? How? 

3. Why are virgin soils fertile? 

4. How much plant food do crojis use for each acre? 

5. How do rotations help? 

6. Explain why barnyard manure is so valuable. 

7. When should green manure be used? 

8. Discuss the value of limestone in the soil. 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. Make a map of a farm showing the fields. In each field show the 

crops grown for several years. 

2. Pour a few spoonfuls of hydrochloric acid in a glass vessel. Dilute 

with about the same quantity of water. Add a spoonful of soil. 
Foaming indicates the presence of lime. The more vigorous 
the foaming the more abundant is the lime. 

3. Place a few spoonfuls of soil in two deep glass vessels. Fill with 

water and shake thoroughly. To one add a spoonful of lime. 
In a half hour shake both vessels again. 01:)serve which clears 
first. The lime granulates the soil. 

REFERENCES 

Farm Manures, Thorne. 
Soils, Lyon, Fippin and Buckman. 
Principles of Agronomy, Harris and Stewart. 
Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture, Hopkins. 
Soils, Hilgard. 

Soils and Soil Fertility, Whitson and Walster. 
First Principles of Soil Fertility, Vivian. 
Fertilizers and Crops, Van Slyke. 
U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bulletins: 
No. 192. Barnyard Manure. 

278. Leguminous Crops for Green Manuring 



CHAPTER XV 
THE VALUE OF THE RAINFALL 

It is well known that some regions are drier than others, 
that when plants wilt they do so because the supply of mois- 
ture is insufficient, and that plants grow rapidly after a 
rainstorm heavy enough to moisten the soil to any con- 
siderable depth. Just what is the value of rainfall in def- 
inite terms such as tons of hay or bushels of wheat can not 
be generally known with exactness. 

Quantity of Rainfall. One region is rainy or wet, and 
another one is dry, in proportion to the amount of rain- 
fall, which consists of rain, hail, snow, and sleet. Unless 
the amount of water that falls in a section is stated in defi- 
nite terms, it is impossible to tell just how much rainfall 
the region actually has. For convenience rainfall is reported 
in inches of water. If all the moisture that falls in a year 
could be saved without loss, the depth in inches might be 
measured at the end of the year and reported. Where a 
part of the rainfall is snow, hail, or sleet, these must neces- 
sarily be melted and the depth of the water taken. Be- 
cause some snow is much wetter than other, the depth of 
snowfall is not an index of the amount of water it contains. 
Since it is impossible to save the rainfall and measure it all 
at once, carefully devised vessels catch the moisture falling 
in each storm for separate measurement. These amounts 
are added to give the total precipitation for the year. 

A region is said to be humid when ordinarily there is 
enough rainfall to produce crops without irrigation water. 
Regions that have too little rainfall for crop production 
without the practice of either irrigation or dry-farming, are 
said to be arid. Transitional regions, that is, those that lie 

108 



VALUE OF THE RAINFALL 



109 



between, are called siihhumid or scmiarid regions. Some- 
times these terms have slightly different meanings, but not 
usually. With ordinary soil and winds, 30 inches of rainfall 
during the year is usually enough to enable successful 
farming without special culture methods. Less than 20 
inches is commonly taken as the amount of rainfall that re- 
quires irrigation or special tillage methods. Where there 
is between 20 and 30 inches, crops need more care than in 

a humid region, 
but not so much 
as in an arid 
section. 

Distribution 
of Rainfall. More 
than half of the 
land area of the 
earth has too lit- 
tle rainfall for 
the most profit- 
able agriculture. 
The most exten- 
sive areas of aridity are north and south Africa, Australia, 
except the northern coast, central Asia, southwest Asia, and 
southeast Europe, and the western parts of both Americas. 
In the United States the dry areas, beginning about middle 
Kansas and Nebraska, extend westward to the coast, except 
the western strip of Washington, Oregon, and northern Cali- 
fornia. The dry regions result from a combination of winds, 
latitude, oceans, and mountains that cause the rainfall to be 
scant or the evaporation to be high. 

Some districts have storms throughout the year, at near- 
ly regular intervals, whereas others have alternate periods of 
wet and dry weather. In California, for example, the rainfall 
comes almost entirely during the winter; in Utah, Nevada, 
and southern Idaho rather largely during the later winter 




Figure -SI. — Edge of snow drift. Catchment, basin under 
Mt. Logan, Utah. 



110 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

and early spring; in Arizona during July and August; in 
Montana and Wyoming during late spring and early summer; 
and on the Great Plains during the whole summer. 

Where most of the precipitation falls in the growing 
season, plants make read}^ use of it; but where it falls be- 
fore the crops are planted, or, at least before they begin 
to grow rapidly, much of it may be lost before the time of 
greatest need. Evaporation is high, however, when the 
moisture falls largely in warm weather. Clear, dry harvest 
weather is also a decided help. 

If the rainfall is slow or in the form of snow, opportunity 
is afforded for it to sink into the soil. Heavy downpours, 
by compacting the surface soil and by emptying consid- 
erable quantities of water on the soil at once, encourage 
much run-off. Slow, drizzling rains are, therefore, prefer- 
able to sudden, torrential ones. 

Small summer showers wet only the surface and are 
evaporated before they come in contact with the active 
roots. Larger storms are more efficient. It is better even 
to have the rainfall of dry regions all in one season of the 
year than well distributed in small storms. 

Crop Yields. Some seasons are much more favorable 
to crops than others. Often much of this difference is due 
to a difference in rainfall. One year in Illinois 13}^ inches 
of rainfall during the growing season produced 32 bushels 
of corn to the acre. The next year under similar condi- 
tions, save that 22 M inches of water fell in the growing 
season, 94 bushels were grown on each acre.* 

Careful investigations have shown that a large part of 
any crop grown under irrigation is produced by the nat- 
ural rainfall. About 750 pounds of water are used in west- 
ern America for growing one pound of dry substance in the 
wheat plant. Counting one half of this to be straw, each 
inch of water on an acre will produce about 2}/^ bushels of 

*Hunt's Cereals in America, p. 207. 



VALUE OF THE RAINFALL 



111 



grain, if no water is wasted. A 10-inch precipitation could 
supply a 25-bushel crop with moisture till maturity. Where 
there is a rainfall of 20 inches, large crops can be grown 
without irrigation. 

Widtsoe (Principles of Irrigation Practice, p. 234) has 
estimated that under a light irrigation of 7/4 inches, from 67 




Figure 32. — One man should drive an extra team on the dry-farm. 



to 84 per cent of the yields resulted from rainfall, and only 
16 to 33 per cent from irrigation water. 

Evaporation. Plants use only that part of the soil mois- 
ture which does not evaporate or drain off beneath. In 
deep soils of dry sections loss from percolation may be prac- 
tically forgotten so far as rainfall is concerned. Evapora- 
tion, however, is extremely active. It is so intense that from 
two to ten times the total rainfall will evaporate from a 
water surface and twice this much from a wet soil. A per- 
son cannot but wonder how any water at all is left in the 
soil. Indeed it is little the plant will get unless great care 



112 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

is taken to prevent losses by evaporation. The drier the 
air, the hotter the soil, and the freer the wind movement, 
the greater will be the evaporation. 

Winds. If high, warm winds are common, they pump 
immense quantities of water from both the soil and the plant. 
The damp atmosphere immediately above plants is replaced 
by dry air which is thirsty for water. Only by getting the 




Figure 33. — A reason why dry-farming has failed. The land is not harrowed. 

moisture deep into the soil and by making a protective mulch 
on the surface, can it be saved at all under such conditions. 

A great difficulty is that regions with little rainfall have 
hot, clear weather, warm winds, and dry air. As the avail- 
able moisture in a farming section gets less and less, the 
difficulty as well as the importance of saving it becomes 
greater and greater. 

Soils composed of particles that are nearly of the same 
size and that are neither too coarse nor too fine, permit water 
to move back and forth readily. Seams of gravel or hard- 
pan, however, prevent this movement, and are, therefore, 
undesirable. Because they are not uniform, such soils are 
nearly useless for dry-farm purposes. To be effective as 
crop producers, the soils of dry regions ought to be six, eight, 



VALUE OF THE RAINFALL 113 

or more feet in depth without gravel or hardpan of either 
clay or cemented materials. For agricultural purposes a 
soil has no more depth than that to which roots can go 
readily or from which water can rise freely to feeding roots. 
Root Systems. In wet soils or in soils with a hardpan 
near the surface, plant roots do not penetrate more than 
two or three feet. In dry-farm areas on uniformly deep 
soils, wheat roots have been found at a depth of more than 
seven feet and alfalfa roots at more than twenty feet. It 




Figure 34. — Why dry-farming has failed. Tumble weeds are allowed to grow 
on fallow land. 

has been found that soils lose water from as much as fifteen 
feet below the surface in the case of grass crops. Water is 
drawn from some distance below the deepest roots. Many 
of our dry-farm crops have developed extensive root sys- 
tems that enable them to feed many feet below the surface 
where evaporation is active. A good loam soil ten feet deep 
can hold twenty-five inches of water — enough to supply an 
enormous crop of grain or a good one of hay. Dry-farm 
tillage methods, which retain this water for plants, are the 
only necessities for a paying crop, if the soil is once thor- 
oughly moistened. 

Dry-farming is the name given that kind of farming in 
which there is special tillage to prevent evaporation. Until 
the last few years, dry sections were carefully avoided by 

8— 



114' WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

home-seekers, and perhaps wisely so. Investigations in 
Utah, Cahfornia, and on the Great Plains, however, recently 
showed that it was possible to produce crops where care was 
taken to handle the soil properly and to choose crops that 
were drouth-resistant. Now, dry-farming is practiced not 
only in western United States, but in Mexico, western Can- 
ada, South America, North Africa, South Africa, Australia 
India, China, Asia Minor, Russia, Austria-Hungary, Spain, 
and other countries. The people of these countries are just 
finding out the possibilities of crop production under methods 
of water conservation. 

The successful practice in dry-farming is based on a few 
fundamental principles, among which are: 

1. Crops require more or less definite quantities of water 
for successful growth under given conditions. 

2. Some plants use water more economically than others, 
and are, therefore, better adapted to the dry-farm. 

3. All rainfall should be made to pass at once into the 
soil and be kept there, so far as possible beyond the influence 
of evaporation. 

4. Careful tillage lessens evaporation and also causes 
plants to grow more rapidly and more vigorously. 

5. If there is not enough rainfall in one season to pro- 
duce a profitable yield, the land should be cropped only once 
in two years, the moisture of the fallow year being stored in 
the soil for the crop the following year. 

6. Nothing except the crop should be allowed to grow 
on the land either when the crop is growing or when the 
land is being fallowed. 

7. Only deep, uniform soils ought to be used, because 
shallow soils or ones broken by gravel or hardpans prevent 
root development and free movement of moisture. 

8. Small profits from each acre of large tracts make com- 
fortable incomes. 



VALUE OF THE RAINFALL 115 

9. Machinery tiucl animals necessary for rapid cultiva- 
tion of large acreages slioukl be available. 

10. Man controls the whole situation by thin seeding 
at the proper time, and on gootl seed beds. This fact 
prevents more plants from beginning life than can mature 
with the water available. 

QUESTIONS 

1. How is rainfall measured? Who measures it in your community? 

2. Why is western United States arid? Western Kansas? Central 

Asia? Northern Africa? India? 

3. Describe an ideal rainstorm. 

4. Describe a "good year" and a "poor year" for crops. 

5. Why does water evaporate? Now how does it? What causes 

evaporation? 

6. How much rainfall is there in your section? In neighboring 

towns? Explain difference or similarity. 

7. How extensive are plant root systems? 

8. How common is dry-farming in your region? In the United 

States? In the world? 

9. Give the five principal practices in dry-farming in order of im- 

portance. State the theory on which each is based. 
10. What is a cloudburst? A tornado? A typhoon? A chinook? 
A "rain belter"? 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. Expose a straight-sided vessel during a heavy storm. Measure 

the depth of the rainfall. If the precipitation is snow, melt it 
first. 

2. Set up some straight-sided cans, fill with water. Expose some in 

shade, some in sunshine, some to wind, and some to calm. 
Let stand for a few days. Note the loss by evaporation. 

3. Compute the weight of an acre-inch of water. Of an acre-foot. 

Of a second-foot for 12 hours. 

4. Look up the difference between the equatorial calms and the 

"horse latitudes." Why are there great belts of arid regions 
near the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn? 

5. Map the humid, semi-arid, and the arid regions of the United 

States on a map. Indicate each by a different marking. 



116 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

REFERENCES 
Dry-Farming, Widtsoe. 
Dry-Farming, MacDonald. 
Soil Culture Manual, Campbell. 
Irrigation, Newell. 
Irrigation and Drainage, King. 
Principles of Irrigation Practice, Widtsoe. 
Use of Water in Irrigation, Fortier. 
Use of Irrigation Water, Etcheverry. 
Farmers' Bulletins: 

No. 769. Growing Grain on Southern Idaho Dry-Farms. 
773. Corn Growing Under Drought}'- Conditions. 
800. Grains for the Dry Lands of Central Oregon. 
878. Grains for Western North and South Dakota. 
883. Grains for the Utah Dry Lands. 
Utah Station Bulletin 158. Soil Moisture Studies Under 

Dry-farming. 
Utah Station Circular 21. Dry -farming in Utah. 
Nebraska Research Bulletin 5. The Storage and Use of Soil 
Moisture. 



CHAPTER XVI 
STORING AND SAVING SOIL WATER 

Water is of use to the growing plant only when stored in 
the soil, where the plant roots can absorb it. It has been 
demonstrated that, if sufficient water be stored in deep soil 
at the time of planting, there is little need of it during the 
growing period of the plant. The maintenance in the soil, 
therefore, of a sufficient supply of water is one of the very 
important considerations for successful farming. 

Water-holding Capacity of Soils. There is a strong 
attraction between soil particles and water, as shown by the 
water film which clings around a stone after it has been 
dipped in water. Water added to a soil clings around the 
soil particles as a thin film in which the root hairs are bathed 
and from which the water necessary for plant growth is 
drawn. There are also in the soil varying quantities of 
so-called colloidal substances which, when mixed with water, 
form jelly-like compounds. Some water is held in the soil 
in this form. The total quantity of water that may be 
held around the soil particles and by the colloidal soil con- 
stituents without draining off represents the water-holding 
capacity of the soil. In coarse, sandy soils this is low, often 
going down to 10 per cent or less of the weight of the soil; 
in fine, clayey soils it may rise to 40 per cent or more of the 
weight of the soil. In loamy soils the water capacity is 
more nearly between 20 and 25 per cent. 

A cubic foot of loam soil weighs in the neighborhood of 
80 pounds. Assuming its water capacity to be 20 per cent, 
it would hold 16 pounds of water. A column of soil one 
square foot at the top and eight feet deep would then hold 
128 pounds of water, equaling a trifle more than 2 feet of 

117 



118 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

rainfall. Since the capacity of soils for storing water is so 
large, it should be well understood by the farmer. 

Downward Movement of Soil Water. When water is 
added to a soil, the particles near the surface take up all the 
water that they can hold. The excess passes downward 
through the soil pores, and as it moves downward the soil 
particles take up as much as they can hold. The depth to 
which water passes depends on the quantity of water added 
to the soil. If less water is added than is needed to satisfy 
the water capacity of the soil, most water will be found near 
the top of the soil and less and less at lower depths. It is 
important that as much as possible of the water that falls 
on the soil descend well beyond the reach of the sun's heat. 
To accomplish this result, the subsoil should always be kept 
somewhat moist; for water travels downward very slowly 
in a dry soil. This principle is of particular importance in 
countries where the rainfall is light. If so much water is 
added that it percolates freely to the standing water table 
or an impervious hardpan, the soil pores tend to become 
clogged with water, to the great detriment of the plant. 
No more water should be found in the soil than can be held 
against drainage by the soil particles. In order to promote 
best plant growth, the soil pores should be partially open. 

Extent of Water Storage in Soils. In sections where 
most of the rainfall comes in winter, as in the intermoun- 
tain region, a large part of the winter's precipitation can 
be stored in the soil for the use of the next crop. From 
50 to 90 per cent of the water that falls as rain and snow 
during the winter is found stored in the soil, at seed time, 
when proper cultural methods have been employed. 

In sections where the summers are wet, as in the Great 
Plains region, less of the water that falls can be stored in 
the soil; but, even in such places on bare soils, 35 to 75 per 
cent of the water that falls may be found stored in the 
soil at the close of the season. 



STORING AND SAVING SOIL WATER 119 

That water may be stored in soils for the use of plants 
has been well demonstrated. 

Storage for Biennial Cropping. The low rainfall of some 
sections makes cropping without irrigation rather uncer- 
tain. For such conditions the attempt has been made to 
store in the soil a large proportion of the rainfall of two 
seasons, to be used by one crop. By this method the land 
is left bare, or fallow, for one year and planted in crop the 
following year. In sections with winter rains, this method 
seems to be more successful than where the rainfall comes 
chiefly in summer. If the land is allowed to rest one year, 
however, provided it is kept free from weeds and volunteer 
crops, and is carefully cultivated, some of the moisture 
then gathered is carried over to the next year. There are 
many other beneficial effects of fallowing, that, combined 
with its water-storing power, make it an excellent agricul- 
tural practice in regions of low rainfall, where irrigation 
can not be practiced. 

Cultural Methods. Reasonably deep plowing, to six or 
eight inches, tends to make it easier for the water to de- 
scend into the lower depths of soil. Deep plowing should 
be practiced cautiously, however, if the subsoil is some- 
what lifeless or inert. On most arid soils it may be prac- 
ticed with impunity. 

Fall plowing is also a good practice for water storage, 
especially in regions of winter precipitation. Land well 
plowed and in a rough condition catches the drifting snow 
and absorbs the water. 

To enable water to pass into the soil to be stored there, 
the top soil must be kept loose and spongy. Any treatment 
that will promote this condition will help the storage of 
water in soils. 

Water Loss by Evaporation. Evaporation is the chief 
cause of loss of soil water. Water is very easily changed 
into vapor, which passes into the atmosphere. In most 



120 WESTERN AORIGULTURE 

localities the quantity of water that would evaporate, were 
it available, is much greater than the rainfall. Thus, at 
Fort Yuma, Arizona, 100 inches of water would evaporate 
annually from a free water surface, while the annual rain- 
fall is only 2.84 inches. At Fort Duschene, Utah, 75 inches 
would evaporate while the rainfall is 6.49 inches; and at 
El Paso, Texas, the evaporation is 8.7 times larger than 
the rainfall; at Pineville, Oregon, 7.8 times; at Lost River, 
Idaho, 8.3 times; at Laramie, Wyoming, 7.1 times; and at 
Mohave, California, 19.1 times. 

Water evaporates from a wet soil as from a water sur- 
face. As the water at the surface is evaporated, the water 
lower down in the soil slowly moves upward, and is in turn 
evaporated. The higher the temperature, the more abun- 
dant the sunshine, the drier the air, the stronger the winds, 
and the wetter the soil, the more rapid the evaporation. 

Tillage to Reduce Evaporation. The large possible loss 
of soil water by evaporation must be reduced, or there 
will be no water left for the use of plants. This may be 
accomplished by stirring carefully the top soil. This leaves 
a blanket of loose dry soil over the land, which has been 
found to be an effective protection against water loss by 
evaporation. Such cultivation with a harrow or any other 
satisfactory cultivator, should be practiced after everj^ rain 
or irrigation, and should be deep and thorough, though 
it is not advisable to form a dust mulch over the land. 

Loss by Transpiration. Much water is also taken from 
the soil by plants. The tiny roots absorb water which is 
passed upward through the plant and finally evaporated 
chiefly from the leaves. This process, known as transpira- 
tion, is essential to plant life. The water taken from the 
soil contains in solution the necessary plant foods, and by 
the process of transpiration these are distributed in the 
plant. For every pound of dry plant substance produced, 
from about 300 to 2,000 pounds or more of water are 



STORING AND .^AVIXG SOIL WATER 121 

required. (Sec Chapter XV.) The average i.s probaljly not 
far from 500 pounds. The rate at Avhicli water passes 
through a phmt depends on many factors. Transpira- 
tion is increased by a high temperature, ajjundant sunshine, 
a dry atmosphere, high winds, and a dilute soil solution, 
that is, a soil poor in plant food. 

Controlling the Transpiration. It is practically impos- 
sible to control the temperature, sunshine, air, or winds 
to such a degree as to reduce transpiration. It is, however, 
possible to affect the plant food in the soil to such a degree 
as to change the transpiration. It is known that the more 
soluble plant food there is in the soil, the less water is re- 
quired to produce a pound of dry matter. To get a larger 
crop with a given quantity of water in the soil, it is neces- 
sary to increase the plant food. This increase may be 
accomplished most directly by adding commercial ferti- 
lizers or by manuring. In one set of experiments, 908 
pounds of water were required to produce one pound of 
dry corn. By adding to this soil an ordinary dressing of 
manure, this was reduced to 613 pounds. Keeping soils 
well manured is, therefore, one of the best methods of 
reducing the transpiration. 

It has also been found, however, that the careful and 
thorough stirring of the top soil will reduce transpiration. 
In an experiment on a sandy loam, 603 pounds of water 
were required to produce a pound of dry matter; when this 
was cultivated, only 252 pounds were required. Culti- 
vation no doubt promotes soil fertility, and, therefore, 
reduces the water cost of dry matter. 

The system of fallowing, already discussed, also tends 
to liberate the plant food of the soil, and, consequently, on 
fallow soils less water is required to produce crops than 
on soils continuously cropped. 

Plowing stubble or growing plants into the soil also 
increases soil fertility and reduces the water cost of crops. 



122 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

QUESTIONS 

1. In what way do soils hold water? 

2. How does water move downward in soils? 

3. To what extent may water be stored? 

4. How does fallowing help? Cultivating? 

5. How may evaporation be decreased? 

G. Explain how plants may be made to use water economically. 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. Dampen soil and fill several deep vessels three fourths full. Covsr 

some with three or four inches of sand, some with straw, and 
have some uncovered. What happens in a week? Explain. 

2. Dig a hole a foot deep in the soil. Fill with water two or three 

times. Next day dig down to find how far and in which direc- 
tions the water has moved. 

REFERENCES 

Dry-Farming, Widtsoe, 

Dry-Farming, MacDonald. 

Soil Culture Manual, Campbell. 

Soils, Lyon, Fippon, and Buckman. 

Principles of Irrigation Practice, Widtsoe. 

Soils and Soil Fertility, Whitson and Walster 

Soils, Fletcher. 

Soil Management, King. 

Use of Water in Irrigation, Fortier. 

Use of Irrigation Water, Etcheverry. 

U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bulletins: 

No. 266. Management of Soils to Conserve Moisture. 
406. Soil Conservation. 



CHAPTER XVII 
SOWING AND CARING FOR DRY-FARM CROPS 

Soil Preparation. An important feature of dry-farming 
is the preparation of the soil so that it will be a suitable bed 
for the germination of seeds. The plowing should be done 
when the soil is not too wet nor too dry, as either extreme 
will make it cloddy. The best tilth is secured by plowing 
the land when it contains just enough moisture to allow it 
to pulverize readily. Plowing done in the fall is usually 
better than that done in the spring, and deep plowing better 
than shallow. Eight to ten inches is usually a good depth. 

It is a good plan to go over the land with some kind of 
harrow or leveler immediately after plowing, to prevent the 
formation of clods. When land is plowed in the fall, how- 
ever, and is to stand over winter without a crop, it is wise to 
leave it unharrowed, especially in regions receiving much 
precipitation in the winter. 

With new land it is advisable to prepare the soil con- 
siderable time before planting the seed, so that the soil may 
have a chance to weather and store moisture. 

Germination. In the preparation of the seed bed the 
central idea should be to produce conditions favorable to the 
germination of seed. Many factors influence germination; 
the three most important are, heat, oxygen, and moisture. 

There are not many ways in which the farmer can in- 
fluence the heat of his soil. Thorough drainage, dark color, 
and coarse texture all favor an early warming of the soil and 
consequently promote a rapid germination of the seed. The 
oxygen supply is increased by loosening the soil. A soil 
which has not been stirred does not furnish suflficient air for 
the best germination of seed. 

123 



124 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

The most important single factor concerned in germina- 
tion of seed on dry-farms is the soil moisture. It is often 
difficult to have the best quantity of moisture present at the 
season when seeds should be planted. If there is only enough 
water to start germination, the drying which follows reduces 
the vitality of the germ. It is often necessary to plant seed 
in dry soil and wait for a rain to furnish water for germina- 
tion. This venture, at best, is unsatisfactory. It is much 
better, by means of the summer fallow or in some other way, 
to have sufficient moisture in the soil at the time of planting 
to bring the seed up. 

Sowing the Crop. In the Great Basin, crops sown in the 
fall usually grow better than those planted in the spring, a 
result, no doubt, of the precipitation that comes in the 
winter. Fall varieties mature earlier than those planted in 
the spring. Such crops as potatoes must, however, be 
planted in the spring. Even for spring planting it is usually 
better to plow the land in the fall. 

The small grains may either be drilled in or sown broad- 
cast; but experiments have demonstrated the superiority of 
drilling. Disk drills followed by press wheels have been 
most successful. The object of the press wheels is to com- 
pact the soil firmly around the seeds to help them in absorb- 
ing moisture for germination. It is better, however, to 
compact just as little of the soil as possible. 

In planting dry-farm crops great care must be exercised 
not to sow too much seed, since a heavy stand is likely to 
use all the moisture at first and leave none to mature the 
crop. With wheat, from one half to one bushel to the acre 
is as much as is wise to plant. 

The depth to sow dry-farm seed depends on the condi- 
tion of the soil and especially on the amount of moisture 
present. When the surface is dry it is often necessary to 
plant very deep, five or six inches, in order to put the seed 
in moist soil. If, however, the top soil has sufficient mois- 



STORING AND CARE OF DRY-FARM CROPS 125 

ture to bring the crop up well, it is advisable not to plant too 
deep. With the small grains, it is well to plant as shallow 
as a good germination can be secured; but, if the soil is dry, 
deeper planting is necessary. 

Cultivation. After the seed is planted it is rarely neces- 
sary to do anything until the crop comes up, but as soon as 
the plants are well through the ground cultivation should 
begin. It is usually best to harrow the young crop every 
few weeks till the plants get so large that they are injured 
by harrowing. With the small grains, cultivation for the 
season usually ends at this time; but, with crops planted in 
rows, such as corn and potatoes, the cultivator can well be 
used very much later. Constant cultivation of crops is one 
of the chief keys to success in dry-farming. 

Harvesting. The methods of harvesting dry-farm crops 
are not greatly different from those used for irrigated crops. 
Dry-farms are usually large and are consequently able to use 
large machinery with profit. The header, self-binder, and 
combined harvester are the chief implements used in har- 
vesting small grains. The header and the combined har- 
vester can be used successfully only where the ripening of 
the grain is fairly uniform. In harvesting corn and potatoes 
on dry-farms, machinery should likewise be used. 

Storing and Marketing. Many dry-farmers, on account 
of not having proper facilities for storing crops, are compelled 
to sell when the market price is low. The equipment of the 
farm is by no means complete until there is some adequate 
way of caring for crops till market conditions justify selling. 
It is sometimes better to have arrangements for storage at 
an elevator on the railroad than to make special granaries 
on the farm. Such storage is often very economical. Prices 
of crops are as a rule low at harvest time ; hence it often pays 
better not to sell at that time. 

Crops for the Dry-farm. So far, the small grains ha\e 
been the chief dry-land crops of the Great Basin. Of these. 



126 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

Wheat leads; barley, rye, and oats have all been raised suc- 
cessfully; and emmer has given some promise. Potatoes 
have been a very successful crop in some regions, but no 
great area has been devoted to them. As forage crops, 
both alfalfa and smooth brome grass have done well. Corn, 
in many respects, is a good dry-land crop. The fact that 
the rate of planting can be made to comply so easily with 
the amount of soil moisture, and that the uncropped space 
can be readily cultivated, make it particularly useful in 
dry-farming. In the Southwest, milo maize is one of the 
most profitable dry-farm crops. Some of the other sor- 
ghums are also promising. Sudan grass is proving to be an 
excellent forage crop in some sections. Each dry-farming 
region has crops which are particularly adapted to it. One 
of the difficult things in dry-farming is to get profitable 
crops that will make a good rotation. 

Wheat raised on dr^^-farms is very much better than that 
raised under irrigation. It is harder and contains more 
nitrogen and gluten and consequently makes better flour. 
The straw of dry-land grain is superior for feeding to that of 
irrigated grain. Forage crops raised on dry-farms are 
especially valuable on account of the high percentage of 
nitrogen and dry matter that they contain. They seem 
also to have a higher percentage of leaves. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why is it important to harrow dry-farm land immediately after 

plowing? 

2. What are some of the conditions of a good seed bed? 

3. What conditions favor the rapid germination of seed? 

4. How does the amount of seed planted on the dry-farm compare 

with that used under humid conditions? 

5. How do the yields of fall and spring varieties of grain compare in 

the Great Basin? Wliat is the reason for the difference? 
0. Why is cultivation so important in dry-farming? 
7. What crops have been most successful under dry-farming? 



STORING AND CARE OF DRY-FARM CROPS 127 

EXERCISES AND niOJECTS 

Make a box having one side covered Avith glass. Plant wheat or 
other grain at various depths — from one inch to eight inches — 
and cover with moist soil. The seeds are to be planted against 
the glass in order that the time of germination and the nature 
of growth may be noted. It is probably best to add some soil 
and then place the seeds against the glass and cover with soil. 
Repeat this until all the seed desired is properly placed and 
covered. 

Place clay or clay-loam soil well pulverized into six vessels. Wet 
all of the soil thoroughly. Now allow to stand; when they begin 
to dry add a little water to five, leaving one to dry. Next day 
add a little water to four. Each day add water to one less. 
This should be so regulated as to have the wetness of the soil 
at the end of the experiment vary from very wet to right dry. 
Now take a sharpened piece of wood and draw through soils as 
a plow would move. Note the relative ease of cultivation 
with different degrees of wetness. Allow to stand until all are 
dry. Note results. 

REFERENCES 

Dry-Farming, Widtsoe. 

Dry-Farming, MacDonald. 

Year Book (U. S. D. A.) 1900, p. 529; 1907, p. 451. 

U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bulletins: 

No. 139. A Grain for Semiarid Regions: Emmer. 

246. Saccharine Sorghums for Forage. 

322. Milo as a Dry-land Grain Crop. 

738. Cereal Crops in the Panhandle of Texas. 

749. Grains for the Montana Dry Lands. 

769. Growing Grain on Southern Idaho Dry Farms. 

773. Corn Growing under Droughty Conditions. 

800. Grains for the Dry Lands of Central Oregon. 

878. Grains for western North and South Dakota. 

883. Grains for the Utah Dry Lands. 



CHAPTER XVIII 
MEASUREMENT OF WATER 

In the United States the ''cubic foot per second" is the 
unit generally used to designate the volume of moving water. 
In the measurement of flowing water there are two elements 
to be considered, the area of water front, multiplied by its 
velocity, or rate of its flow. The velocity of flowing water 
is most often measured by its rate of flow in a second. 

Second-foot. If we assume a channel to be one foot 
wide and the depth of water in the channel to be one foot, 
we then have an area of. one square foot. If we assume that 
the flow of water in this channel is at the rate of one linear 
foot a second, there would pass a given point one cubic foot 
of water each second. The flow of this stream would be 
one cubic foot per second, or, as frequently designated, one 
second-foot. If the channel were five feet wide and the 
depth of water three feet and the rate of flow of the water 
two feet a second, the channel would be carrying (5X3 
X 2 = 30; area X velocity = volume) thirty second-feet. 

Acre-foot. The term acre-foot is most frequently used 
to designate the amount of water contained in a reservoir 
or the depth of water applied to land by irrigation. An 
acre-foot of water is the amount that would cover an acre 
to the depth of one foot, or 43,560 cubic feet. A second- 
foot flowing continuously for twenty-four hours equals 1.98 
acre-feet, or, as commonly expressed, "A second-foot for 
twenty-four hours equals two acre-feet.'' 

Miner's Inch. The miner's inch is a measure deriving 
its origin from an attempt of the early mining and irrigation 
interests of the West to devise a method of measuring water 
in natural and artificial channels. The quantity of water 

128 



MEASUREMENT OF WATER 129 

represented by a miner's inch is variable, because it is sub- 
ject to the statutes of various states. The miner's inch is 
measured by means of a rectangular opening in a channel. 
The depth of water over the top of the opening varies from 
43/2 to 6 inches. It takes from 48.4 miner's inches m Colorado 
to more than 70 inches in Dakota to equal one cubic foot 
a second; hence the miner's inch is fast going out of use. 

The Gallon Measure. The gallon measure is used ex- 
tensively by engineers in calculating the supply of water 
for municipal purposes. The flow of water is expressed in 
the number of gallons that would flow in a minute of time. 
A gallon equals 231 cubic inches, and it requires 7.48 gal- 
lons to make one cubic foot, or 448.8 gallons per minute 
to equal one second-foot. 

Methods of Measurement. To determine the rate of 
flow of any channel it is necessary, as stated above, to know 
the area of the channel and the velocity of the water. The 
width is determined by direct measurement with line or 
surveyor's instrument. The depth is taken at intervals 
across the stream near a bridge or by means of a car run 
on a cable. The velocity is most frequently determined 
by the use of a current meter or by means of floats. 

The current meter consists essentially of a series of 
vanes or cups revolving horizontally around a vertical axis. 
The number of revolutions of the meter is determined in 
relation to the velocity of the flowing water in which it is 
held. The meter is lowered into the water; a sounder held 
to the ear gives clicks for turns of the vanes, which are 
counted. Thus, by the use of the current meter, the velocity 
of the water can be ascertained. The meter is used in 
determining the velocity of water in large and small 
streams. It is generally necessary to measure a stream in 
several places as the velocity varies considerably. The mid- 
dle flows faster than the sides; the top, faster than the bot- 
tom; and the center, faster than the top. To multiply the 



130 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

width by the depth and this result by the velocity means 
that averages must l)c used. Now, averages are extremely 
hard to get for either the depth or the velocity; hence quick 
measurements are very crude, and careful ones can only 
approximate the flow. A large stream ought, therefore, to 
be computed by sections. 

Floats are, as the term implies, objects placed upon the 
surface of the water and allowed to float with the current. 
The rate at which the float travels between two given points 
will determine the rate of flow of the stream. Surface 
floats are subject to action of winds and currents and measure 
only the rate of the flow of the surface water, and hence do not 
give an average. The submerged float is frequently used 
and consists essentially of the surface float having suspended 
from it by means of a small wire some kind of a weight. 
The use of any float gives only approximate results. 

The rating flume usually consists of a rectangular flume 
or channel permanent in its nature. The velocity of the 
water in the flume is determined by the use of the current 
meter at times of different depths of water in the flume, 
the flow of the stream being calculated thereby. From these 
measurements and calculations a table is made so that know- 
ing the depth of water in the channel at any time, the flow 
of the channel can be ascertained by reference to the table. 

The Weir. The methods of determining the flow of 
water enumerated above may be termed direct methods. 

The weir is a means of determining the total flow by the 
application of principles and formulas derived from experi- 
ments. In the use of the weir, the velocity of the water is 
estimated as it passes through the opening. A weir consists 
essentially of a regularly formed opening of definite shape 
and size. There are three forms of weirs: (1) the rect- 
angular weir having a horizontal bottom and vertical sides; 
(2) the trapezoidal, or Cippoletti weir, the bottom of the 
opening being horizontal and the sides having a slope of one 



MEASUREMENT OF WATER 131 

measure horizontal to four vertical; (3) the triangular or 
V-shaped weir, whose sides slope forty-five degrees, which 
is sometimes used in measuring very small quantities of 
water. The trapezoidal weir is the one generally used. 

The weir is well adapted to the use of engineer or lay- 
man. It measures the depth of water passing through the 
opening. Then, either by calculation or from tables, the 
flow of water is readily determined. 

In measuring the depth of water passing over a weir 
crest, the measurement of the depth or head must be made 
at a point a few feet up stream from the weir. The water 
in passing over the crest of the weir has a curved upper 
surface and the experimental depth is the one measured 
above the point where this curvature occurs. 

Inches of Water. In many sections of the West there 
has come into use a term, inches of water, which derived 
its origin from placing rectangular boxes of desired sizes in 
the canal. The size of these boxes, or openings, was deter- 
mined by the number of shares of stock owned in the ditch 
by the individual or individuals using water from this open- 
ing. No attention was paid to the depth of water above the 
opening or the grade or slope of the boxes or of the flume 
leading away from the opening. If, for instance, a person's 
interest in a canal entitled him to one hundred inches, he 
would have placed in the bank of the canal a box ten inches 
by ten inches inside measurement. If he were near the 
head of the canal he would have from one to three feet of 
water above this box, while near the lower end of the canal 
he might have but a few inches. Thus, the man at the head 
of the canal might, and, by actual measurements, did, 
receive from one and one half to three times as much water 
as the man at the lower end of the canal. 

In the division of water in natural streams and in arti- 
ficial channels tlie early courts have decided that the re- 
spective openings should be of a specified width; but in few. 



132 WE^Tl^JRN AGRICVLTURK 

if any, cases did the court specify the j^rade of the channel 
at and immediately below the division. 

This method of measure or division is very rapidly pass- 
ing out of use. 

Automatic Devices. There have been invented, within 
the past twenty years, numerous automatic measuring and 
dividing devices most of which have been especially designed 
to deliver to the users from the canal a definite quantity of 
water. Because the water of western streams fluctuates 
from day to day, and even during the day, and also because 
during a part of the irrigation season the water is turbid, 
or has vegetable matter floating upon it, these devices have 
proved unsatisfactory. 

Kutter's Formula. By numerous experiments and trials 
there has been found a formula for the calculation of the 
flow of water in natural and artificial streams. This for- 
mula is known as Kutter's formula, based upon the action 
of gravity upon water. Where the channel is uniform and 
regular, the formula gives fairly good results. It is used ex- 
tensively by engineers, especially for preliminary work and 
for the designing of sizes and grades of artificial channels. 
It is, however, so comphcated that only specialists can use it. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why should water be measured? 

2. Define second-foot, acre-foot, miner's inch, current meter, float, 

rating flume, and weir. 

3. How is water measured? 

4. Why do some men get more water from canals than others? 

5. Describe an automatic device for measuring water. 

6. What is Kutter's formula? 

EXERCISES AND }MI().JE01\S 

1. If possiV)le, practice measuring a stream at a weir or flume. This 
njay be done in either of two ways. The simpler way is to find 
a weir and to measure the width of the weir crest (at bottom of 



MEAt^ U RUM EN T OF WA TEK 133 

notch) and to measure depth of water on a nail which is set 
level with the weir crest some distance back of the notch. The 
quantity of water can be read directly from a table. This 
table can most hkely be secured from the county agricultural 
agent or from the State Engineer's Office at the state capitol. 

When no weir is nearby, the measurement may be approximated 
by measuring the depth and the width of the stream in a fiume 
or in a straight place in its natural bed. It is now necessary 
to find the velocity of the stream. This can be done roughly 
by measuring off twenty, thirty, or sixty feet and finding how 
many seconds it requires to float a chip that distance. The 
volume of the stream can now be found in second-feet by 
multiplying the width in feet by depth in feet by velocity in 
feet to the second. 

Note: This sort of measurement is only approximate. 

REFERENCES 

Irrigation, Newell. 

Irrigation and Drainage, King. 

Irrigation Engineering, Wilson. 

Principles and Practice of Irrigation, Widtsoe. 

American Irrigation Farming, Olin. 

Irrigation Institutions, Mead. 

Use of Water in Irrigation, Fortier. 

Use of Irrigation Water, Etcheverry. 



CHAPTER XIX 
THE QUANTITY OF WATER TO USE 

Over the surface of the whole earth less water flows in 
the rivers than is necessary to cover the land by irrigation. 
In the arid and semi-arid regions particularly the water in 
the streams is sufficient to cover only about one tenth of 
the land that could be irrigated profitably. The most im- 
portant question before the irrigation farmer is, therefore, 
''How can I make the water go as far as possible?" 

Irrigation a Supplementary Practice. The purpose of 
irrigation is to supplement or assist the rainfall. Even in 
arid regions, except in the driest, the rainfall is of chief im- 
portance in producing crops. The value of the rainfall has 
been demonstrated in many places. It is common knowl- 
edge that in wet years larger yields are obtained with the 
same irrigation water than in dry years. It has also been 
found that one half to three fourths of a normal irrigated 
crop is really attributable to the rainfall, that is, by dry- 
farming methods one half to three fourths of the irrigated 
crop would have been obtained. To save irrigation water, 
therefore, the rainfall should be stored and kept in the soil, 
just as is done in dry-farming. The more of the natural 
precipitation thus stored, the less irrigation water will be 
needed. It follows that in regions of high rainfall little 
irrigation water will be needed. In fact, in humid regions 
irrigation is of benefit only in dry years. 

The First Law. After the rainfall has been well con- 
served in the soil the first law to guide the farmer in the 
application of irrigation water is that ''the crop-producing 
power of each unit of irrigation water dinmiishes as the total 
quantity of water used is increased.'' This law means that, 

134 



QUANTITY OF WATER TO USE 



135 



if 5 inches of water produced 38 bushels of wheat, 10 inches 
would not produce twice as much. In fact in a long series 
of experiments it was found that 5 inches of water produced 
nearly 38 bushels of wheat, but 50 inches or ten times as 
much water produced only about 49 bushels — a gain of 
about 11 bushels for 50 inches of water. The following 
table shows some of the results obtained in experiments : 



TABLE VII.— Yields of Dry Matter, in Pounds per Acre with Vary- 
ing Quantities of Water. (Utah Results.) (Rainfall and Soil 
Water = 13.74 inches.) 



Inches of Water 
Applied 


Wheat 


Corn 


Sugar Beets 


Potatoes 


5.0 


4,969 
5,545 
5,684 
6,279 




6,080 


2,310 


7.5 


10,757 
12,762 
13,092 
13,865 
14,606 
15,295 


2,730 
2,925 
3,405 
4,005 


10.0 
15.0 
20.0 


8,053 

8,636 

10,076 


25.0 


6,672 


30.0 


10,271 


3,660 


35.0 


7,229 
7,999 




50.0 




11,528 


3,795 


55.0 


12,637 











As more water is applied, therefore, to agricultural crops 
the smaller does the yield become for each unit of water 
used. If too much water is used, the yield actually de- 
creases. In general, therefore, where there is plenty of land 
and little water, it should be profitable to use as little water 
as possible and spread it over the largest area of land. 

Spreading Water over Much Land. In the above table 
5 inches of water produced 37.81 bushels of wheat, whereas 
50 inches produced only 49.38 bushels. If the 50 inches 
had been spread over 10 acres, to a depth of 5 inches, there 
would have been a yield of 378.1 bushels of wheat. Where 
water is expensive and land cheap, such a consideration be- 
comes more important. Similar calculations may be made 
for the other crops in the above table, and on the basis of 



136 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



(he cost of production the most piofitahb^ (iiuuitity of water 
to use ma}'' be calculated for each crop. 

Water and Crop Development and Quality. Changing 
the quantity of water used does not alone affect the total 
yield of crop. The development of the crop is powerfully 
affected by the quantity of water used. The proportion of 



Effects of freaff^e nf5 on yield of s helled corn 



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Figure 35. — The effect of varying quantities of water and manure on the yield 

of corn. 

roots in a plant becomes smaller as water is increased. A 
somewhat dry soil is rather better filled with roots than is 
a wet one. The general vigor of the plant depends on the 
condition of the roots, and a medium supply of water will 
furnish the best root development. The seed-bearing stalks, 
the leaves and other parts of the plant are most favorably 
affected by medium quantities of water. In all grain crops 
the proportion of grain goes down as the irrigation water is 
increased, that is, with much water straw is produced at the 



QUANTITY OF WATER TO USE 



137 



expense of grain. For example, the proportion of grain in 
wheat falls from 44 to 33 per cent as the water is increased; 
in oats from 65 to 58 per cent; in barley, from 51 to 38 per 
cent and in corn, from 52 to 44 per cent. 

The chemical composition of crops is also affected by the 
quantity of water used. The per cent of gluten in wheat 





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Figure 30. — Effect of varying irrigation and manuring on the yield of corn 

husks. 

and the sugar in beets becomes smaller as much water is 
used. The color and flavor of crops are best when the crops 
are lightly irrigated. While some crop constituents are 
favored by heavy irrigation, most of the desirable qualities 
of crops are obtained by light irrigations. 

Quantity of Water to Use. It is exceedingly difficult to 
lay down any definite rules governing the quantity of water 
to be used for different crops. On the basis of general expe- 
rience and reported experiments tolerably safe 'imits may, 



138 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

however, be stated. Wheat requires relatively little water. 
On deep well tilled soils 73^ inches of water in two irriga- 
tions should be sufficient; on shallow, gravelly soils, as high 
as 18 inches may be used in 4 or 5 irrigations. An average 
of 1 acre-foot should be ample for the production of wheat 
on fertile well tilled soils. Oats should not receive less water 
than wheat; barley about the same; but rye may be grown 
with less water than the other small grains. Corn should 
seldom receive more than from 12 to 18 inches of water. 

Alfalfa can make use of more water than the grains, and 
should receive from 12 to 24 inches of water according to 
the age of the crop and the depth of the soil. Ordinarily 
18 inches should be enough. The other haymaking crops, 
like timothy and orchard grass, need even less water than a 
crop of wheat. They are cut only once, while alfalfa is cut 
three times or more. Clover requires probably from 12 to 
15 inches of water. Pastures and meadows should receive 
according to location from 12 to 24 inches of water. 

Under present practice sugar beets receive from 15 to 
24 inches of water; but the tendency is for somewhat less to 
be used. Carrots and other root crops should receive about 
the same. The more seed is planted, the more water is 
required. Potatoes need a good supply of water in the soil 
at planting time. The total quantity should be about the 
same as that for sugar beets. 

It is fairly safe to say that all ordinary crops, including 
trees and shrubs, should receive from 12 to 24 inches of 
water. This amount is considerably less than is now applied 
to crops. As better cultural methods are employed, the 
duty of water will become higher, that is, less will be used 
per acre. Water has been used quite wastefuUy in the past. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why ought water to be used economically? 

2. What part does rainfall play in crop production under irrigation? 



QUANTITY OF WATER TO USE 139 

3. Why is light irrigation more profitable? 

4. How may water be made to ])roduee greater crop returns? 

5. How does heavy irrigation affect the quantity used? 

6. How nnich water should l)e applied in one irrigation? 

7. How many irrigations arc necessary for crops? Why does th."s 

vary? 

8. How often should crops be irrigated? Why does this vary? 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. Secure a half dozen tomato or other cans of the same capacity. 

Make holes in the bottom of each with a nail. Fill with moist 
but not wet soil. Hang in a row in such a way that the cans 
are level and firm. Using a small vessel (a desk ink-well would 
serve) add water slowly to each can, noting how many vessel- 
fuls are added to each before water l^egins to drip through the 
holes. The capacity of soils to hold water helps to determihe 
how much water may be applied to irrigated lands. ne 

2. Secure a deep can. Make holes in it. Obtain enough soil of the 

same kind to fill it several times. Fill it one fourth full and 
see how much water may be added before dripping begins. 
Empty this soil out, and fill half full with soil. Add water until 
dripping begins. Repeat with can three fourths full and then 
full. Use fresh soil each time. Compare the quantity of 
water that was added in each case before dripping began. The 
depth of a soil is also a factor in determining the best size of 
application of irrigation water. . 

REFERENCES 

Principles of Irrigation Practice, Widtsoe. 

Irrigation and Drainage, King. 

Use of Water in Irrigation, Fortier. 

Use of Irrigation Water, Etcheverry. 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 263, Practical Information for Beginners 

in Irrigation. 
Utah Station Bulletins: 

No. 117. The Yield of Crops with Different Quantities of Irri- 
gation Water, Widtsoe and Merrill. 

No. 154. Irrigation and Manuring Studies, Harris. 



CHAPTER XX 
THE TIME AND METHOD OF IRRIGATION 

To obtain the best results in crop production the soil 
should contain, throughout the growing season, approxi- 
mately the same percentage of water. To maintain this 
condition is impossible. Rains do not come regularly; nor 
is the water used in irrigation equally available throughout 
the season. 

Plant Growth and Irrigation. In the spring, when the 
root system is being developed, the growth of plants above 
ground is slow. The rate of growth increases, however, 
until the time of bud and flower formation when it is most 
rapid. When seed formation begins, the rate of growth 
diminishes. The water used by plants is generally in pro- 
portion to the rate of growth, because many of the factors 
that determine plant growth also determine the rate of 
evaporation. 

As a general principle, then, little water needs to be 
applied to crops when they are young; more, as the time of 
flowering is approached, and less thereafter. 

It is very difficult to approximate this ideal, since stream 
flow does not vary with the needs of the farmer. Only 
when water is stored in reservoirs from which it may be 
drawn as needed can the ideal principle be applied. For 
the best crop results, however, every effort must be made to 
supply the crop with water at the right time. 

Time of Irrigating Short-season Crops. Wheat and the 
other small grains, peas, beans and similar short-season 
crops should be planted in soils well-filled with moisture. 
They shoukl then ])e allowed to grow as long as possible 
without irrigation, in order that a vigorous and strong root 



TIME AND METHOD OF IRRIGATIOX 



141 



system may be established. Early irrigation of such crops 
is seldom advantageous enough to pay for the lal)or and 
water. If the soil were well moistened at the time of plant- 
ing, it is seldom necessary to irrigate before the time of 
flowering. From that time on, one or two irrigations may 
be profitably applied. After the seeds are well formed there 




Figure 37. — Effect of varying irrigation on yield of potatoes. 

is seldom any advantage in irrigation, though, when the 
seeds are filling and shortly before, water is of great value. 

Time of Irrigating Long-season Crops. Sugar beets, 
potatoes, corn, alfalfa and similar long-season crops should 
be planted in well-saturated soil. The first irrigation should 
be postponed as long as possible, until the plants really 
show the need of water. From the time of the first irri- 
gation, water must be applied to these long-growing crops 
at regular intervals. 

Sugar beets, carrots, corn and like crops, planted usu- 
ally in May, need the greater quantity of water in July and 
the first half of August. From the first of September and 
during autumn, Kttle, if any, water should be applied, even 
if the harvest does not occur until October or November. 



142 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



Four or five inches of water form a fairly large single 
application. Usually a smaller quantity is sufficient to main- 
tain the crops in good condition. Two to four irrigations 
throughout the season should be sufficient. 

In the case of alfalfa the first irrigation should occur 
just before the time of bud formation, and another just be- 
fore or after each cutting. 



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Figure 38. — Effort of varying irrigation on yield of sugar. 

Fruit trees require a moderate quantity of water in 
spring and early summer with an increasing quantity as the 
summer advances and the fruit develops and the fruit buds 
form. Late fall irrigation of orchards, after the season's 
wood has ripened, is beneficial to the succeeding crop, 
except in places where the winter precipitation is heavy. 

Fall and Winter Irrigation. Wherever the rainfall or 
snowfall comes chiefly in fall and winter or in early spring, 
fall and winter irrigation have little value, if the land is so 
treated as to allow the natural precipitation to soak into the 
soil. Wherever the winters are dry, fall and winter irrigation 
are very desirable. 



TIME AND METHOD OF IRRIGATION 



143 



It is of the greatest advantage to have the soil well- 
filled with moisture at planting time, for it makes possible 
a quicker and more complete germination, and it delays the 
time of the first irrigation and consequently the plant is 
enabled to establish a strong root system. In all districts, 
therefore, where the soils are naturally dry in the spring. 




Figure 39. — Effect of varying irrigation on yield of wheat. 

fall, winter or early spring irrigation may be advantageously 
practiced. 

Fall irrigation may be applied to the land any time 
after harvest; winter irrigation at any time when the soil 
can absorb water, and spring irrigation any time before 
planting. 

Methods of Irrigation. The methods of irrigation are 
many, but they are all variations of three general methods, 
namely, (1) flooding the land; (2) applying the water to 
the land in furrows, and (3) subirrigation. In general prac- 
tice the first two alone are in general use. 

Irrigation by Flooding. Most commonly land is flooded 
by taking water out of the main ditches at various inter- 
vals, and, as it flows over the field, distributing it properly 



144 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

by small temporary ditches or furrows. These small lat- 
erals follow the high places of the field, and the water over- 
flows their banks, thus covering the field. This is the 
so-called field-ditch method of flooding. A variation of this 
method is the border method in which the field is divided 
by low flat ridges of earth into long narrow strips, the lower 
ends of which are open. Each strip is flooded separately. 
Another very common variation of the flooding method is 
the check method in which the field is laid off into com- 
partments or checks wholly surrounded by banks or levees, 
which prevent run-off. Water is admitted at the upper 
end until the compartments are wholly covered. 

Furrow Method of Irrigation. In this method of irri- 
gation, small furrows, leading from the supply ditch, traverse 
the fields to be irrigated. Water flows down the furrows 
without overflowing and is absorbed by the soil. Next to 
the method of flooding by field ditches, this is the most com- 
mon method of irrigation, and promises, at least in America, 
to supersede all other methods. 

The furrows used in this method are usually temporary 
and made from year to year by ' 'markers" or ''furrowers." 

Subirrigation. The application of water to crops from 
below would be very satisfactory were it not that it is very 
expensive to install suitable underground systems for the 
distribution of water and that plant roots move towards 
the openings through which water issues, and in time choke 
them up. 

The only subirrigation of consequence is that practiced 
under naturally favorable conditions. In some localities 
are somewhat sandy soils one to five feet in depth, underlaid 
by an almost impervious clay. Ditches are dug at inter- 
vals of a hundred yards to three fourths of a mile. The 
water flowing through these ditches sinks until it reaches 
the clay bottom when it spreads over great distances and 
within reach of the plant roots. This limited natural sub- 



TIME AND METHOD OF IRRIGATION 145 

irrigation is the only form of applying water from below the 
surface which can be recommended at present. 

Permanent Ditches. Whatever method is used, a sys- 
tem of permanent supply ditches should be laid out on every 
farm. Such an arrangement makes the farm look better, 
and also saves labor and expense from year to year. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is the ideal soil moisture condition? 

2. Why do young plants require only small quantities of water? 

3. How should the irrigation of long-season and short-season crops 

differ? Why? 

4. Ought irrigation to be practiced in fall or winter? Why? How? 

5. Describe the various methods of distributing water on the land. 

6. Compare flooding with the furrow system. 

7. Describe the conditions where subirrigation should be practiced. 

8. Explain the law of "least resistance" as apphed to time, method, 

and extravagance of irrigation. 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. Fill four pie plates two thirds full of moist sand. Plant about 

200 kernels of wheat in each. Keep two of these moist. Let 
two dry out. Wet them again and allow to dry out. Repeat 
this. Note results for two weeks. 

2. Mark off two areas of clayey ground or spread out two patches 

about six feet long and three feet wide. Flood one of these. 
In the other, make furrows and add water by running it down 
the furrows. When dry apply water again. Now let stand 
until completely dry. Note the condition of the surface of 
the ground. Explain which would be more favorable for crops. 

REFERENCES 

Principles of Irrigation Practice, Widtsoe. 

Use of Water in Irrigation, Fortier. 

Use of Irrigation Water, Etcheverry. 

Irrigation and Manuring Studies, Harris, Utah Bulletin No. 154. 



10— 



CHAPTER XXI 

ALKALI SOILS 

ORIGIN AND COMPOSITION 

Soils in which water-soluble salts have accumulated to 
such ^n extent that they are injurious to vegetation are 
spoken of as "alkali soils." On account of their method of 
formation, they are limited in area almost exclusively to 
the arid regions of the world, occurring but seldom where the 
annual rainfall exceeds twenty inches. In the arid regions, 
however, they often cover great areas and are of especial 
interest to the student of western agriculture. 

Origin. We have seen that soils are formed by the 
gradual disintegration of the native rocks, which yield var- 
ious substances that are soluble in water. In the humid 
regions, the heavy rains leach much of this soluble material 
from the soil and carry it to the ocean. In the arid regions 
the rainfall is not sufficient to accomplish this result and 
the soluble substances accumulate in the soil in sufficient 
quantities to become injurious to vegetation, under which 
conditions we have what is known as alkali soils. Our 
attention is often first directed to this condition after the 
injudicious use of irrigation water on the arid soils. A study 
of this harmful practice illustrates the way in which alkali 
soils are formed. When water is applied to soil, it tends by 
force of gravity to sink to lower levels. In so doing it seeks 
the larger openings and spaces in the soil; so water may pass 
down through the soil without becoming very heavily charged 
with soluble substances from it. When the water evap- 
orates from the surface of the soil, that from the lower depths 
tends to rise to the surface to take the place of the water 
evaporated. As the soil water gradually climbs to the sur- 

146 



ALKALI 80IL^ 



147 



face, it becomes laden with solu])le constituents. Tliesc, 
as the water evaporates, are deposited at the surface in 
quantities sufficient to act as a poison to the plant. There 
are numerous examples of this throughout Montana, Idaho, 
Utah, Colorado, California, and other western states. 

Appearance. Soils which have been the shore of a sea 
or lake may also be so charged with soluble salts as to be 
classified as alkali soils. These have been formed by the 






P^^ 






Figure 40. — Alkali spots in alfalfa field. The evaporation of the surface water has 
broughtthe alkali to the surface. Grand Junction, Colo. (Photo by E. D.Ball.) 

evaporation of the water which has covered them, while the 
salts of the water have been deposited on the soil. Many of 
the alkali soils of the Great Basin have been formed through 
the slow evaporation of the waters of Lake Bonneville. The 
two classes of soils are, however, distinct in their properties. 
The true alkali soils are, after reclamation, extremely fertile, 
but the lake shore soils may or may not be ; and these latter 
are usually much more difficult to reclaim than the former. 
AlkaU districts vary from a spotted field, in which only 
a small area is affected, to the one which is a barren waste. 
Alkali soil may have a brownish tint, appearing as if oil had 
been poured over its surface or it may be so covered with 



148 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

salts that it is while. A whit(3 soil, howcv(M', docs not neccs- 
sai'ily indicate alkali, since some soils may l)e so rich in lime 
as to be white, and yet be free from alkali. The native vege- 
tation, such as salt grass, greasewood, saltbush, and shad- 
scale, indicate the presence of alkali in the soil, even though 
no traces may appear at the surface. On the other hand, 
sagebrush and rabbit brush usually indicate the absence of 
alkali. The presence of alkali is often first brought to the 
attention of travelers in alkali regions by its effect upon their 
skin and lips, giving them a dry, parched appearance, and 
often making the lips sore. Where alkali is being brought 
to the surface in cultivated land by the injudicious use of 
irrigation water, it usually appears first as a white or brown- 
ish incrustation along the edge of the furrows. This is often 
followed with a growth of barley grass (foxtail), which is usual- 
ly regarded as intermediate between the cultivated crop, be- 
fore the land becomes badly affected with alkali, and the 
worst stages, where the salt grasses grow. 

Kinds of Alkali. The main injurious constituents occur- 
ring in alkali soils are sodium chloride, or common salt, 
sodium sulphate, or Glauber's salt, sodium carbonate, and 
frequently sodium nitrate. Soils which have been the bed 
of seas or lakes contain, in addition to the above constitu- 
ents, magnesium chloride, or bittern, magnesium sulphate, 
or Epsom salts, and calcium sulphate, or gypsum. Where 
there is a large amount of any or all of the above salts, except 
sodium carbonate, it is known as white alkali. It is not 
necessarily white in color, but is nearly free from sodium 
carbonate. Where there is considerable of the sodium car- 
bonate present, it is spoken of as black alkali. It is so- 
called from the dark color which this constituent imparts 
to the soil when it comes in contact with the organic matter 
of the soil. It is very destructive to plants, tends to puddle 
the soil, and clings very tenaciously to the soil particles, 
thus being hard to wash out. 



ALKALI SOILS 149 

EFFECTS 

How Alkali Affects Plants. When there is considerable 
alkali in the soil, it may prevent the germination of the seed, 
or make a sparse, sickly growth, with short shoots which 
are only scantily clothed in leaves, and with little or no fruit. 
Sometimes the plants make a rapid healthy growth at first, 
only to be quickly killed outright when the alkali starts to 



Figure 41. — Soil so heavily charged with alkali that the only vegetation which can 
grow on it is small annual salt bushes. Salt Lake Valley. (After Gardner and 
Stewart, U. S. D. A. Bureau of Soils.) 



rise. On examining the plants, ''we shall mostly find that 
the visible damage has been done near the base of the trunk, 
or root crown, rarely at any considerable depth in the soil 
itself. In the case of green, herbaceous stems, the bark 
is found to have been turned to a brownish tinge for half an 
inch or more, so as to be soft and easily peeled off. In the 
case of trees, the rough bark is found to be of a dark, almost 
black, tint, and the green layer underneath has, as in the 
case of herbaceous stems, been turned brown to a greater 
or less extent." The alkali may be in quantities sufficient 
actually to decompose seeds and it has been known to de- 
stroy completely the hard outer bark of mature trees. Small 
quantities of these same alkalies increase plant growth, 
probably on account of their stimulating action on the soil 



150 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

bacteria. K large quantities are present, the alkali retards 
or may even kill the bacteria which are essential to maintain 
the productiveness of the soil. It is probably due to a lack 
of these bacteria and the bad physical conditions of the soil 
from which the soluble salts have been removed that the 
reclaimed soils are not productive during the first few years. 
Quantity Injurious to Plants. The quantity of alkali 
which plants can withstand varies greatly with the plant 
and the soil. In general, where the soil is a loam or heavier, 
the amount of alkali required to injure the crop is higher 
than when the soil is more sandy. Alfalfa and beets are 
fairly resistant to alkali, while wheat, peas and celery are 
more sensitive to the salts. The following table gives 
the quantity of the various salts found by Hilgard to be 
injurious to some of the more common plants. The results 
are given as pounds an acre to a depth of four feet. 

TABLE VIII. 

Total Alkali Sodium Sulphate 

(Glauber's salt) 

Salt grass 381,110 Saltbush 125,640 

Saltbush 156,720 Alfalfa (old). . 102,480 

Alfalfa (old) 110,328 Sugar beets 52,640 

Sugar beets 59,840 Salt grass 44,000 

Wheat 17,240 Wheat 15,120 

Apples 16,120 Apples 14,240 

Alfalfa (young) 13,120 Alfalfa (young) 11,120 

Mulberry 5,760 Mulberry 3,360 

Sodium Carbonate Sodium Chloride 

(Sal soda) (Common salt) 

Salt grass 136,270 Salt grass 70,360 

Saltbush 18,560 Saltbush 12,520 

Sugar beets 4,000 Sugar beets 10,240 

Alfalfa 2,360 Apples 1,240 

Wheat 1,480 Mulberry 1,240 

Apples ■ 640 Wheat 1,160 

Mulberry 160 

These results show very clearly that the quantity of 
alkali which is required to kill plants varies greatly with the 
plant and kind of alkali. The so-called black alkali is more 



ALKALI SOILS 



151 



toxic to plants than is the white alkaU on account of its 
injurious effect on the physical properties of the soil. 




RECLAIMING ALKALI LANDS 

Prevention. Land that is known to contain considerable 
alkali but not sufficient to be injurious to plants should be 

so handled as to prevent 
alkali accumulation. Sol- 
uble constituents, when dis- 
tributed to a depth of three 
or four feet, may so stimu- 
late plant growth that the 
field may be very fruitful; 
but if these same substances 
are concentrated near the 
surface they may render the 
soil wholly unfit for the 
growth of plants. The ac- 
cumulation of alkali may 
often be prevented by the 
judicious use of irrigation 
water. Where there is no underdrainage, the water used 
should be only what the plant requires. Surface and not 
subirrigation should be practiced; crops should be grown 
which shade the soil. In general, a method which reduces 
surface evaporation should be used. Care should be taken 
to see that the irrigation water used is not carrying sufficient 
alkali to the soil to inj ure it. 

Use of Gypsum. A favorite method of reclaiming black 
alkali lands is by the use of gypsum. When this substance is 
applied to land rich in black alkali, it is changed into white 
alkali, which, as has been previously shown, is much less 
injurious to plants. Unless thei'e ])e great quantities of 
black alkali in the soil, addition of the required amount of 
gypsum to the soil will render it fruitful. If, however. 



Figure 42. — An orctiard being injured by 
alkali. Underdrainage or other correc- 
tive measures must be taken to prevent 
entire loss. 



152 WEi^TERN AGRICULTURE 

there is already a great accumulation of white alkali in the 
soil, this treatment would have little value unless followed 
by drainage. Only a careful chemical analysis of the soil 
can tell whether this method of treatment will remedy the 
evil. The gypsum, besides neutralizing the black alkali, 
probably increases greatly the tilth of the soil and renders 
the alkali more easily leached out. 

Alkali-resistant Plants. It has been shown that there 
is a great variation in the resistance of plants to alkalies, so 
that it may be possible to grow beets with profit on land 
which contains sufficient alkali to prevent the growth of 
wheat or fruit trees. The continual growing of alkali-resist- 
ant plants on the land and their, complete removal gradu- 
ally removes some of the alkali constituents, and in time it 
may be reduced to such an extent that less resistant plants 
can be grown with profit. 

Cultivation. Alfalfa is quite resistant to alkali when once 
started; yet the young plant is very tender. It is often 
possible to get a good stand of alfalfa started on land by 
turning the top alkali under to a considerable depth, in order 
that the young plants may become rooted in the surface 
soil, which is comparatively free from alkali. By shading 
the soil or by surface cultivation it is often possible to re- 
duce greatly surface evaporation and by so doing to prevent 
the accumulation of alkali at the surface. The application 
of manure to alkali soil often assists considerably by im- 
proving the physical condition of the soil. It has been 
recommended by some that the surface alkali be scraped up 
and then carted from the land. This method is of value 
only on small areas. 

Underdrainage. The most successful method for re- 
claiming alkali land is by the leaching out of the soluble 
constituents by moans of water. In ortler that this be a 
success, there must l)e a good underdrainage and the water 
applied in sufficient quantities to pass down through the 



ALKALI f<OIL^ 153 

soil and U) cai'iy the alkali witli it. It is in reality tlic only 
permanent method, since it is the only one that completely 
removes the cause. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is meant by alkali lands? 

2. From where does alkali come? 

3. How does alkali rise to the surface of soils? 

4. State the value of alkali land. 

5. Name the kinds of alkali salts. Describe how each looks. 

6. In what ways does alkali injure plants? 

7. How much salt must be present to injure crop plants? 

8. How may alkali be avoided on lands not impregnated? 

9. Describe a method of reclaiming alkali land. 
10. What crops are alkali-resistant? 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. Collect pictures of alkali spots, and of plants injured by alkali. 

2. Add various alkali salts to damp soils — a tablespoonful of each 

to a pie plate half full. Mix thoroughly and let stand. Note 
results. Explain. 

3. Add a teaspoonful of the various alkali salts to water glasses about 

two thirds full of moist soil (one to each glass) . Treat two 
glassfuls with each salt. Mix the soil thoroughly on a smooth 
surface or on a small piece of oilcloth. Plant ten wheat kernels 
in each and cover with glass. Note how soon the wheat comes 
up in each case. 

REFERENCES 

Soils, Hilgard. 

Soils, Lyon, Fippin, and Buckman. 

Origin, Value and Reclamation of Alkali Lands, Yearbook, U. S. 
D. A. 1895. 

Nature, Value and Utilization of Alkali Lands, Hilgard, Califor- 
nia Bulletin No. 128. 

Principles of Agronomy, Harris and Stewart. 

Principles and Practice of Irrigation, Widtsoe. 

Farmers' Bulletins: 
No. 88. Alkali Lands. 

440. The Choice of Crops for Alkali Land. 



CHAPTER XXII 
DRAINING IRRIGATED LANDS 

That any of the irrigated lands of the West should re- 
quire drainage seems strange at first thought. The early 
condition of western lands was that they were thirsting for 
water. This conception is still popular. The actual con- 
dition is, however, that a part of the land under irrigation is 
water-logged. 

Development of Irrigation. The area of irrigated lands 
in the West has been increased greatly from year to year with 
the progress of settlement. The first settlers upon the 
streams constructed ditches and canals to irrigate lands imme- 
diately along the stream. When this area of land was cul- 
tivated, a ditch or canal at a higher elevation was built, 
covering lands at a greater distance from the stream and at 
a higher elevation. This development of the older, irriga- 
gated sections has progressed until, now, lands are irrigated 
from the banks of the stream to the base of the mountains. 

The causes which have led to the water-logging of irri- 
gated lands and to the rise of alkali to the surface may be 
attributed to the gradual increase in the irrigated areas, to 
wasteful irrigation, and to seepage from artificial channels, 
all combined with lack of natural drainage. 

The upper edges of wet land are extending, from year 
to year, farther up and are encroaching more and more 
each season on land hitherto not water-logged. This move- 
ment of the upper edge of the wet land can be arrested only 
by drainage or by the discontinuance of overirrigation. 

Effect of Surplus Water in Soils. An excessive amount 
of water in soils leaches out plant food and excludes the air 
required by the plant for breathing. The result is excessive 

154 



DRAINING IRRIGATED LANDS 155 

evaporation, forming of cold soils with poor tilth, and ac- 
cumulation of alkali at the surface. 

Soil and Subsoils. The surface soils are usually rather 
porous and the subsoils in irrigated sections are more or 
less impervious to water. Thus irrigation water penetrates 
the surface soil to a layer of clay or hardpan which gen- 
erally slopes toward the middle of the valley. The imper- 
vious strata, therefore, naturally form beds along which 
the water flows, if there is more than can be retained by 
capillarity. 

Wet or water-logged lands occur most frequently at, 
and immediately below, a change in the general slope, 
especially at the foot of bench lands. Lands are less likely 
to be so situated on extensive plains than in mountain valleys. 

Drainage in the United States has been confined, until 
recent years, to the humid sections. During the past eight 
or ten years considerable attention has been paid to the 
drainage of arid lands, and especially to those under irriga- 
tion. This work has received the attention of State Experi- 
ment Stations and of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. 

Arid vs. Humid Drainage. There is a vital and fun- 
damental difference between drainage in irrigated sections 
and that in humid regions. In a humid district, the excess 
of water is the result of rain falling upon the surface, while, 
in an irrigated one, it is due to water applied artificially 
or to seepage. Invariably the water that causes the water- 
logging comes by underground movement. The source of 
this may be water applied at higher levels or seepage from 
ditches and canals. The water from either source pene- 
trates the surface soil to the impervious stratum along which 
it makes its way, until it finds a surface outlet or its rate 
of flow is lessened by denser soil or a more gradual slope. 

In the humid sections the principles of drainage are based 
upon the fact that the water comes from all over the sur- 
face and must be removed from beneath the whole surface. 



156 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

In arid sections, the need is not so much to remove excess 
water from the soil as to prevent it from entering the soil. 
In one case we seek a cure; in the other, a prevention. 

Soil water moves always in the direction of least resist- 
ance. The rate of movement depends upon the supply, 
the slope of the soil and subsoil, and the fineness of the soil 
through which it moves. In the valley floors of irrigated 
areas the soils and subsoils are of such irregular texture that 
the ground water moves more as a slow stream in defined 
channels than as a general seepage through an entire sec- 
tion. This last fact modifies to some extent the general 
principle of drainage of irrigated lands. 

Plans for drainage lines and systems must have for 
their starting point a suitable outlet. Many systems have 
failed for the reason that an outlet of sufficient capacity or 
depth was not provided. 

The next general principle is to cut across the flow of 
the underground water. Crosscutting the flow of under- 
ground water corresponds to turning the water of a river 
or creek by placing a dam across it. 

In draining for the removal of alkali salts the system 
corresponds to that of drainage in the humid section; that 
is, water is placed upon the surface of the soil by artificial 
means and after having percolated through the soil to the 
desired depth (three to five feet) must be carried off by 
artificial drains. The system must, of course, have suffi- 
cient fall to carry away the water and the sediment which 
may enter. 

If the purpose of the drainage is to remove both surplus 
water and alkali salts, a system combining the principles 
of both is employed, the removal of the alkali usually being 
the secondary consideration. 

The depth of drains depends upon tlie character and 
depth of the subsoil and the character of the crops to be 
grown. It is desirable to have the drains in irrigated sec- 



DRAINING IRRIGATED LANDS 157 

tions at least four feet deep. If the crop to be grown is 
fruit trees, alfalfa, or some other deep-rooted crop, the 
drains should be at least five or six feet below the surface. 
The depth of the stratum carrying the underground water 
influences very largely the depth to which the drains are laid. 
When impervious subsoil is, as in some cases, only one or 
two feet below the surface, the drains should be bedded 
partly in this impervious subsoil. 

Soil water wells, which are simply artificial openings 
in the ground, deeper than the level of the ground water, 
are used primarily to determine the height of ground water. 
They are used also to determine roughly the rate of move- 
ment of the water through the soil. After the drainage sys- 
tem has been established these wells are useful to indicate 
the influence of the drains upon the level of the under- 
ground water. They consist either of a hole bored with a soil 
auger or of one dug with a spade and afterwards boxed in. 

The Kind of Drains. Open and covered drains are both 
used. The open drains consist essentially of a trench or 
ditch dug to the depth desired. They are not economical, 
as they are expensive to maintain, occupy a considerable 
land area, and are usually partly filled with dirt or clogged 
with vegetation. To be permanent they should have side 
slopes of not less than two lengths horizontal to one vertical. 
The brush drain is closely associated with the open one. 
It consists merely of brush laid in the bottom of an open 
channel and covered with earth. This drain has proved 
unsatisfactory and expensive, since the brush soon decays 
and permits earth to fall into the trench, thus destroying 
its usefulness. 

The rock drain is of two kinds, the loose-rock drain and 
the placed-rock drain. The loose-rock drain consists of cob- 
ble rock of various sizes thrown in the bottom of the trench 
and covered with earth. The placed-rock drain consists 
of a rectangular opening made by standing flat rocks edge- 



158 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

wise on either side of the trench and laying another on top 
of these and covering with earth. 

Wooden-box drains, as the name implies, are made of 
lumber and consist of rectangular openings usually from 
four to six inches by ten to twelve inches, most frequently 
without a wooden bottom. In place of a bottom, cleats 
from four to six feet apart are nailed across. These drains 
have given excellent satisfaction where the ground is con- 
tinually moist; but in sections where the ground is compar- 
atively dry a part of the year the wooden drains soon rot. 

Tile drains are made by placing in the bottom of the 
trench burnt-clay or cement-concrete pipes. The tile pipe is 
preferable to any other kind of drain on account of its greater 
durability. If of good quality, tile pipe will last a lifetime. 
A.1 though the cement-concrete pipes are acted upon to a 
limited extent by alkah, they are practically indestructible, 
and, next to burnt-clay, are to be recommended. 

Many persons have the idea that water enters a tile 
through pores; but this is not true. It enters the joints. 

Precautions. The failure of many drainage systems can 
be traced to faulty construction of incidentals. The tile 
should be laid in such a manner that the alignment will not 
be destroyed easily. Sand basins, or catch basins, as they 
are sometimes called, ought never to be omitted. These 
basins are for the purpose of catching the sediment carried 
in the system and also for the purpose of readily locating 
points that have become clogged. The catch basins, merely 
enlargements of the drainage line, are made usually of a 
wooden box a foot or two below the bottom of the drain, 
and with the top on a level with the surface, covered with 
a strong wooden lid. The outlet of a drainage system should 
be protected by a good screen against the entrance of rats, 
mice, and other small animals. 

In constructing drainage lines it has been the practice of 
some to cover the tile with straw or similar perishable 



DRAINING IRRIGATED LANDS 159 

material. The straw, being on top of the pipe, is, after a short 
time, in chy eartii. It then affords an excellent nesting 
place for field mice, which burrow from the surface to the 
straw, leaving a hole. When the land is later irrigated, the 
water pours down these holes washing soil with it, thus 
enlarging the holes considerably. A clogging of the drains 
naturally results. 

Clogging of the Drainage System by Roots. There has 
been considerable anxiety as to the possible destruction of 
drainage systems by the penetration of plant roots. Es- 
pecially has this fear been felt where the line passed in the 
vicinity of trees, through alfalfa fields, or fields of other 
deep-rooted crops. This fear has proved poorly founded, 
since in not many instances has the failure of drainage sys- 
tems been caused by root action. In northern Utah the 
greatest danger has arisen from the penetration of the tile 
lines by the sugar beet roots, which have frequently pene- 
trated the tile and completely clogged it. The remedy is 
to plant no sugar beets within three or four feet of the tile. 

Advantages of a Drained Soil. A soil which is drained 
has several advantages over a soil which is not, whether the 
drainage be artificial or natural. (1) The drained soil per- 
mits ready pulverization; (2) it is warmer; (3) it is 
lighter; (4) the growing season is lengthened, because the 
land may be worked earlier in the spring; (5) the rise of 
alkali to the surface is prevented; (6) the soil contains more 
air; (7) since the water table has been lowered, the roots 
have more soil from which to feed ; (8) as plants can use only 
the capillary water, they get more from a deeply drained soil ; 
and (9) as a result of all these benefits, crop yields are in- 
creased. 

QUESTIONS 

1. How is overirrigation related to alkali spots? 

2. In what way does soil structure influence alkali? 

3. Where do alkali spots occur most frequently? 



IGO WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

4. In what se(;ti(>iis of the United States is drainajie ])raeticed? 

.5. Wherein does the (h-;unase of arid and humid regions differ? 

G. Where should drains he 1m id with resi)ect to water movement? 

7. What is the j^roper depth for drains? 

8. Name and describe the kinds of drains. State the value of each. 

9. Give a few precautions necessary to a good drainage system. 

10. How do roots affect drains? 

11. List the advantages of draining. 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. Collect pictures concerning land drainage. 

2. If convenient, visit a drainage system that is being installed. 

3. Add eight tablespoonfuls of common salt to a tomato can full of 

sand. Mix thoroughly and place in a can with holes in the 
bottom. Add water until about a cupful has drained through. 
Taste this water. Evaporate it. 

4. Add four tablespoonfuls of common salt to each of two cans two 

thirds full of soil. Mix thoroughly. Add water until the soil 
is muddy and then let stand in can until dry. Do the same 
with sodium carbonate, sodium sulphate, and gypsum. When 
all are thoroughly dry, add water. Note the quantity of water 
and the length of time required to cause draining for each salt. 

REFERENCES 

Irrigation Engineering, Wilson. 

Irrigation and Drainage, King. 

Practical Farm Drainage, Elliott. 

Farm Drainage, French. 

Land Draining, Miles. 

Land Drainage, Khppart. 

A Textbook of Land Drainage, Jeffery. 

Agricultural Engineering, Davidson. 

Soils, Lyon, Fippin and Buckman. 

Reports of the National Irrigation Congress. 

Farmers' Bulletins: 

No. 371. Drainage of Irrigated Lands. 

524. Tile Drainage on the Farm. 

805. Drainage of Irrigated Lands. 



CHAPTER XXIII 
MACHINERY FOR PLOWING AND CULTIVATING 

The plow is the most important of all farm implements. 
Its use dates back to ancient Egypt where it was first drawn 
by man and later by animals. Even as recently as the time 
of the American Revolution the plow was a crude affair, 
built by the united efforts of the village carpenter and black- 
smith. The modern plow hardly began to develop until 
1830. Greater progress has been made in the improvement 
of the plow since then than in all previous time. 

Kinds of Plows. Modern plows may be classified as: 
(1) The walking plow, (2) the riding, or sulky plow, (3) the 
gang plow, (4) the disk plow, (5) the hillside plow, and (6) 
the subsoiler. The walking plow is fitted with either a 
wooden or a steel beam, each of which has advantages. 
The wooden beam may be broken, but is comparatively 
easy and inexpensive to replace. On account of the shrink- 
ing and swelling of the wood, more or less difficulty is en- 
countered in keeping the metal parts attached to the beam 
from becoming loose and out of adjustment. The steel 
beam has a deeper throat than the wooden beam and for 
this reason is less likely to allow the plow to become clogged 
by tall weeds or cover crops when these are being turned 
under. This beam is less likely to be broken and is not so 
much affected by the weather; but it may be sprung when 
the plow strikes an obstacle. 

Shares. The walking plow, as well as the sulky and the 
gang, is furnished with two general types of bottoms, the 
chilled and the soft-center steel. In the chilled plow, the 
share, moldboard, and landslide are made of cast-iron, very 
hard and well adapted to resist wear. As new shares of this 

11- 161 



162 WESTERN AQ-RICULTVRE 

type cost but a few cents, it is quite inexpensive to replace 
them when they become broken or dull. They cannot be 
sharpened by forging, but may be sharpened by an emery 
wheel. 

The chilled plow will not scour well in some soils, hence 
the steel plow is employed. The steel plow of best quality 
is made of a plate of steel so soft that it cannot be tempered, 
welded between two plates of cool steel. This arrangement 
leaves the center soft to resist breakage and the outside 
hard to resist wear. Shares made in this way are much 
more expensive than the chilled shares, but can be sharp- 
ened by a smith when they become dull and may be 
repointed by welding on new metal. 

Plow bottoms are classed as general purpose, stubble, 
and breaker. The general purpose plow, as its name im- 
plies, is used for general work on land that has been cul- 
tivated; but it is not well adapted to breaking tough sod. 
For this purpose the breaker plow, having a long, slanting 
moldboard, is used, the effect of which is to turn the sod over 
in long strips, or ribbons. This turning over leaves the 
roots in condition to rot quickly and become available 
plant food. The stubble plow is best adapted for culti- 
vated land, as it breaks up the furrow slice and pulverizes 
it better than either of the other types. This plow has a 
short, abrupt moldboard which produces the desired action. 

The set of a plow consists in the proper relation of beam, 
share, moldboard, and landshde. Manufacturers see that 
the proper set is given to each plow before it leaves the 
factory, and the smith must be depended upon to restore 
this set each time the plow is sharpened. 

The sulky plow has decided advantages over the walk- 
ing plow in that it enables the operator to ride, causing him 
much less fatigue. The advantage is still greater in the gang 
plow with which one man may do much more work in a 
day than would be possible with a single plow. The selec- 



MACHINERY FOR PLOWING AND CULTIVATING 163 

tion of a sulky, or a gang, plow should be made with even 
greater care than in the case of a walking plow, because 
there are so many more working parts to be considered, 
and because the efficiency of the implement depends upon 
the proper adjustment and relationship of all these parts. 




Figure 43. — Gang plow with detachable shares. 

Sulkies should be conveniently arranged, easy of opera- 
tion, and of good material and workmanship. A poorly 
constructed tool is likely to be composed of poor material. 
The plow should be provided with an easily operated foot 
lift and should be capable of turning a square corner in 
either direction. All wearing parts should be of generous 
proportions and either easily adjustable or capable of being 
replaced at small expense. These plows are made either 
with or without frames, the frameless plow being less 
expensive but not quite so handy in operation and rather 
less durable. 

In the adjustment of a sulky plow, the land wheel should 
travel directly to the front. The rear furrow wheel should 
be given a small lead from the land, that is, it should be 



164 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

turned outward slightly; it is also set about an inch outside 
the line of the landside in order to remove friction from 
this part of the plow. The 'front furrow wheel is given 
lead from the land with a single plow, and toward the land 
on a gang plow when the team is hitched abreast, causing 
the plow to travel directly forward. The horses should 
be hitched in such a manner that they will not be crowded 




Figure 44. — Two-way sulky plow. 

too closely together nor should they be too far apart, since 
in either case they cannot do their best work. 

The two-way sulky plow is well adapted to plowing 
on hillsides where the land is too steep to furrow uphill. 
As the frame is wide, the plow will not tip over under these 
conditions. There is an automatic foot lift provided, by 
means of which either bottom is lifted by the team; but 
sidehill work is only one of the functions of these plows. 
They may be used as a right or left-hand sulky, and they 
are especially well adapted to plowing irrigated land, be- 
cause the plowing can be started at one side of a field and 



MACHINERY FOR PLOWING AND CULTIVATING 165 




Figure 45. — Reversible disk plow. 



carried directly across from one side to the other without 
back furrow ridges or dead furrows, thus leaving the land 
level and in good condition for further cultivation. They 
also have advantages in a dry country where it is desirable 
to follow the plow immediately by harrow and seeder to 
prevent the drying out of the soil. These plows are fur- 
nished with either jointers or rolling coulters, as desired. 

The disk plow may be used on certain kinds of soil. 
The moldboard plow, however, is generally preferable, be- 
cause it is lighter of draft, more convenient to handle, and 
easier to keep in repair. 




Figure 46. — Taylor subsoil plow. 



166 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



The subsoil plow is not used to turn a furrow, but is 
intended to follow the ordinary plow in the same furrow, 
for the purpose of loosening the ground to a greater depth 
without bringing any of the subsoil to the surface. This 
kind of plowing makes more plant food available, and renders 




Figure 47. — Light tractor; one-man plowing outfit. 



penetration of the plant roots to a greater depth easier. In 
some localities it pays to subsoil for some crops. 

The Traction Engine. With extensive methods of farm- 
ing the traction engine has come into use. Both steam 
and gas are used as a source of power. Some of the com- 
mon uses to which the tractor is put are to plow, seed, and 
cultivate the ground; harvest the crops, haul gravel trains, 
draw road graders, pump water, pull stumps, saw wood 
and lumber, and haul farm products to market. The trac- 
tor is better for some of these purposes than for others. Its 
usefulness for plowing and cultivating purposes is still un- 
determined in many portions of the intermountain ter- 
ritory, because there are so many different soils. In some 
cases it is maintained that the tractor packs the soil to the 



MACHINERY FOR PLOWING AND CULTIVATING 167 

detriment of the crop. In other cases it seems a success, 
being good for plowing virgin land. If the ground is soft, 
provision is made by which an extension rim can be bolted 
to the wheels and thus distribute the weight over a larger 
area. By this means the ground has a less tendency to 




Figure 48. — Disk harrow. 



pack. Farmers sometimes make a mistake in buying a large 
traction engine without having sufficient work to keep it 
busy. Deterioration and interest on the investment amount 
to considerable. A small tractor that will pull two or three 
plows will meet the needs of the majority of farmers. It is 
quite difficult to estimate the cost of plowing on account 
of the difference in cost of fuel for different locations. 

Disk. Harrow. To secure the best results plowing must 
be followed by the right kind of cultivation. One of the 
best implements to follow the plow is the disk harrow. 
On account of its rolling motion and its wide range of ad- 
justment this machine may be used for a great variety of 



168 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

purposes and under varying conditions of soil and climate. 
The disks vary in size from twelve to twenty inches, four- 
teen to sixteen inches being used most. The disk harrow 
should be well-made, furnished with good bearings and a 
simple, sure oiling device. Some disk harrows are pro- 
vided with a single lever for regulating the angle of setting 




Figure 49. — Spring-tooth harrow. 

of the gangs; but two levers are better, as the gangs can 
then be set independently of each other. To secure best 
results disks must be kept sharp, as they lose power of pen- 
etration when dull. 

Spike-tooth Harrow. The spike-tooth, or smoothing har- 
row, is used to fit land for seeding after plowing is completed, 
and also to cultivate some crops soon after they are up. 
It breaks the crust that may have formed after rains, pro- 
ducing a dust mulch to retain moisture and destroying the 
small weeds. The best implements are provided with levers 
and quadrants by means of which the teeth may be slanted 
forward or backward or held in a vertical position. The 
teeth should have heads on their upper ends to prevent them 
from being lost in case they become loosened. The tooth 
fasteners should also be strong and simple. 



31 AC H IN FRY FOR PLOWING AND CULTIVATING 169 

The Spring-tooth harrow is very useful on stony or 
rough ground. When the teeth catch on an obstruction, 
they spring back and in this way release themselves. They 
are made in several sizes and either for riding or walking. 

Cultivators. These machines should be provided with 
substantial wheels and dust-excluding axle boxes; the opera- 
ting levers should be conveniently placed. Heavy springs 
should be provided to assist in raising the gangs, and con- 
venient means for steering are necessary. 

One-row cultivators have shovel teeth on a frame of 
adjustable width. One horse pulls the implement, a man 
walking behind to guide it by handles. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Name the various parts of a walking plow. 

2. What is meant by the plow bottom? 

3. What special benefits does the two-way plow offer above other 

plows? 

4. Name the different kinds of harrows in order of their importance 

as implements on the farm. 

5. In what way has the tractor improved farming methods? 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. Visit some Implement House and examine the different types of 

plows and harrows. See whether you can identify the imple- 
ments described. 

2. Find a plow or a harrow out of working condition. Repair it. 

3. Find a rusty plow. Scour it clean with ashes and water. Now 

apply a little oil and rub. In half an hour or next day rub with 
dry ashes. Here is one way to clean a rusty plow. 

REFERENCES 

Farm Machinery and Farm Motors, Davidson and Chase. 

Dry-Farming, Widtsoe. 

Agricultural Engineering, Davidson. 

Handy Farm Devices and How to Make Them, Cobleigh. 

Fertility of the Land, Roberts. 

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. I. 

Soils, Lyon, Fippin, and Buckman. 

Power and the Plow, Ellis and Rumely. 

Machinery Catalogues, 



CHAPTEK XXIV 
MACHINERY FOR SEEDING AND HARVESTING 

Seeds are commonly planted either by a seeder or a drill. 
The seeder should not be used except where it is impracti- 
cable to use the drill. The principal objection to the seeder 
is that is it impossible to place all the seed in the ground at 
the proper depth or with any uniformity of distribution. 

Drills. The classification of drills is determined by the 
kind of furrow opener and the nature of the feed. There are 
various kinds of furrow openers such as the hoe, shoe, 
single and double disk openers. For most purposes the 
single disk is the best. It will penetrate the soil to a greater 
depth, is not so readily clogged by brush, has fewer working 
parts, and is less expensive. There are, however, several 
types of double disk on the market that are very successful. 
The double disk has no side draft and is efficient for clean, 
well-prepared ground. 

Following behind the furrow opener is a covering device. 
The press wheels seem to be the most satisfactory for this 
purpose, especially for fall grain. One objection to this 
type is that uniform pressure is not always exerted. Another 
is that in some lands the press wheels pack the soil and cause 
rapid evaporation of moisture from the surface. A chain 
attached to the furrow opener is a good covering device 
for moist soils, but is not generally satisfactory for the soils 
in climates of limited rainfall. 

Drills are equipped with one of two types of feeds, the 
external or internal feed. The former is used more than the 
latter. The amount of seed sown in the external feed is 
determined by the size of the opening. On the other hand, 
in the internal feed the amount of seed sown is determined 
by the speed of the cup ring regulated by a change of gears. 

170 



MACHINERY FOR SEEDING AND HARVESTING 111 



Mower. The mower consists of a cutting mechanism 
made up of a reciprocating tooth knife, or sickle, driving 
wheels, gearing to impart proper speed to the knife, and 
outside and inside dividers to keep the cut grass in proper 

position. The knife slides 
between guards and is driven 
by a pitman rod operated by 
a crank. It is very necessary 
that provision be made to ad- 
just the worn parts to keep 
the mower in perfect working 
order. Most mowers are now 
provided with a foot lift by 
means of which the cutter 
bar may be Ufted over ob- 
structions and the horses 
relieved while turning cor- 
ners. In some machines the 
bar may be lifted vertically a 
foot or more and automatic- 
ally thrown out of gear and 
again put in gear when the 
bar is lowered to its working 
position. Figure 50 shows 
such a lifting mechanism. In order to do satisfactory work 
the knives must be kept sharp. A proper knife grinder is 
shown in Figure 51. The two-horse mower is the most com- 
mon size and has a cutter bar from four and a half to eight 
feet in length. One of these machines is capable of cutting 
from eight to fifteen acres per day. The most essential 
features of a mower are accessibiHty for repair and provision 
to take up the wear in the various parts. 

Rake. There are several types of rakes on the market. 
Each works successfully for certain kinds of duty. The most 
common is the sulky rake, varying from eight to twelve 




Figure 50. — Lifting mechanism of the 
mower. 



172 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 




Figure 51. — Knife grinder. 



feet in width. The 
side-delivery rake is 
used to advantage with 
the hay loader. The 
parts subject to sever- 
est shock and wear are 
the teeth and wheel 
boxes. Figure 52 shows 
a mower, side-delivery 
rake and a hay loader. 
Binder. The binder is one of the most complicated 
machines among the many farm implements. The multi- 
plicity of parts makes it essential that the various opera- 
tions occur at the right time. The binder has a main driv- 
ing wheel, gearing for power transmission, a cutter bar, a 
reel to gather the grain and place it on the platform, and 
canvas elevators to carry the cut grain to the binder attach- 
ment where it is gathered into bundles and tied. 

The most important of all these parts is the binder 
attachment. The success of this part determines to a large 
extent the success of the implement. The knotter of this 
attachment very often gives trouble on account of its being 
improperly timed. Figure 57 shows a binder attachment; 



itf 


fll 


MM 


\^»^m^^^ 


f^^PBIn 


fflUHB^^^HUEHHl^HB 


V 




|II^^^HHlllHHHi 


Mi. 


...... i^:.- 


- ••',',Xi-i^'*^< . ' - • 



Figure 52. — Modern haying machines in operation. 



MACHINERY FOR SEEDING AND HARVESTING 173 




Figure 53 — New Ideal binder 

figures 55 and 56 illustrate the knotter and twine disk. 

Header and Combined Harvester and Thresher. Closely 
related to the binder is the header and combined harvester 
and thresher. The header cuts the grain just below the 
heads and elevates it immediately into a header box drawn 
by horses alongside of the machine. By cutting the grain 
high a great many parts of the binder are eliminated and 
less handling is required. 

The combined harvester and thresher is largely used 
where conditions are such that the grain can be cured while 
standing. This implement is a combination of the binder 




Figure 54. — Combined harvester 



header. 



174 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 





Figure 55. — Knotter. 



Figure 56. — Steel twine holding disk 
and pinion. 



and threshing machine. It requires from ten to thirty- 
six horses or a large traction engine to operate one of these 
machines. The small combined harvester and thresher has 
been so perfected that two or three men and ten or twelve 
horses harvest from ten to sixteen acres of grain per day. 
Better results are had by mounting the stationary gas engine 
on the harvester to drive the machinery at constant speed 
and use horses or a tractor to pull the machine. 

Haystackers. No piece of machinery is so diversified in 
make as is the haystacker. Each section of the country has 
its own pecuhar type of stackers. The kind of hay, the 
dryness of the soil, and location of the haystack, are factors 
that should determine to a large extent the kind of stacker 
used. Many of those used to-day are homemade and serve 
purpose well. There are, however, some patented 
~ stackers that are 

giving good results. 
The essential re- 
quirement of a good 
stacker is that it 
shall be possible to 

Figure 57.— Binding attachment. put the hay in any 



their 




MACHINERY FOR SEEDING AND HARVESTING 175 

part of the stack in a short interval of time and raise the hay 
to a height of from twenty to thirty-five feet. The hayfork 
or nets and wagon with a hay loader are used successfully in 
case there is a long haul. Where the hay is stacked in the 
field the sweep rakes and swinging stacker make a good com- 
bination. The latter method seems to afford the most rapid 
method of putting up hay. 




Figure 58. — Threshing machine. 

Wagons. The wagon is the most universally used im- 
plement on the farm. On account of this fact, perhaps, 
there are more styles of this implement than any other. 
The greatest variation exists in the height of wheel and the 
width of tire. Manufacturers are, therefore, compelled to 
make a great many sizes of wheels and keep them in stock in 
the jobbing houses. This condition necessarily increases the 
cost of the wagon. Better results would be obtained if the 
farmer would use wider tires. A wagon manufacturer 
recently made the following comment concerning standard- 
ization of wagons: ''Wide tires on all wagons will mean 
better roads, the hauling of heavier loads with less power, 
less wear and tear on the wagons, team, and equipment, 
besides saving of time required to market the farmer's 
product. This matter of time alone is getting to be a tremen- 
dous factor to the farmer, owing to the scarcity and the 
high prices of farm labor." 



176 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



Beet Digger. The beet digger is used mainly in the 
digging of sugar beets. As it must run deep enough not to 
injure the beets, it must be strong and well-made. To avoid 
breaking the beam a draft rod is provided which is attached 
directly to the standard. This rod is raised or lowered to 




Figure 59. — Good wagon and team. 

vary the depth of working. The front of the standard as 
well as the share should be kept sharp. If they are not sharp, 
the draft of the implement is greatly increased. The im- 
plement most needed in many sections at this time is a 
successful beet digger and topper. Such an implement 
would materially decrease the cost of raising beets. 

Potato Digger. The potato digger has become a very use- 
ful tool where potatoes are grown on a commercial basis. 
They are often plowed out with a conamon plow, which 
leaves them in a poor position for those who pick them up, 
and many of the potatoes are often covered and left in the 
field. The digger is very often provided with a vibrating 
rack which receives the potatoes as they come from the 



MACHINERY FOR SEEDING AND HARVESTING 177 

ground, shakes them free from dirt, and deposits them in a 
row on the ground. A gauge wheel regulates the depth. 
In the rear of the gauge wheel is a weed fender used to sep- 
arate the weeds and vines. Some farmers cut the weeds 
and vines and remove them from the land before digging is 
commenced. Another type of potato digger is used where 
these tubers are grown on a very large scale. This machine 
digs the potatoes, shakes them clean, and delivers them 
into a wagon box. 

Fanning Mill. To prevent weeds from growing on the 
land, and to give seeding machinery the greatest efficiency, 
it is necessary to separate grain mechanically into its several 
classes. This work can be accomplished very successfully 
by the use of a fanning mill. The essential feature of a mill 
consists in feeding the grain to a series of oscillating sieves 
in the presence of an air blast. The blast of air separates 
all dust and finer particles from the grain. The sieves with 
different sized mesh separate the grains into several grades 
according to their size, shape, and weight. In some in- 
stances it may be necessary to use two or three kinds of 
mills to get the desired results or to pass the grain or parts of 
it through the same mill two or three times. Too little 
attention is paid by the average farmer to the possibilities 
of this machine. 

Pumps. Many different types of pumps are used about 
the farm to-day. Force pumps are especially adapted for 
domestic purposes. For irrigation purposes, when it is de- 
sired to raise a large quantity of water with a small lift, the 
centrifugal pump is best. The latter type of pump is made 
with a vertical or horizontal shaft. 

Power on the Farm. With the use of modern machinery 
on the farm has come the introduction of farm motors. 
The extension of electric power plant lines and the low cost 
of electric power are making it possible to use electricity 
for many purposes v\4th profit on the farm. Feed grinders, 

12— 



178 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 




Figure 60. — Threshing by power. 



water pumps, fanning mills, bone grinders, alfalfa mills, milk- 
ing machinery, and many other farm machines may be oper- 
ated by gasoline or electric motors. Much drudgery is elim- 
inated by the use of a small motor, to operate such home 
devices as the sewing machine, washing machine, wringer, 
vacuum cleaner, churn, and ice cream freezer. Either gas- 
oline engines or electric motors may be used. 

The Automobile. The time has arrived when, under 
some circumstances, the automobile is a necessity. It is 




Figure 61. — Caterpillar tractor. 



MACHINERY FOR SEEDING AND HARVE8TINCr 179 



true that in many cases if: is a luxury, but in the business 
world it has come to stay and its abandonment would be a 
great setback to civilization. It is being used in all phases 
of agricultural work to-day. The price is such that it is 
possible for the well-to-do farmer to buy an automobile and 




Figure 62. — Farm power plant. 

use it to advantage. The automobile is being used a great 
deal to overcome waste of time and add convenience and 
comforts to the home. 

Care of Farm Machinery. A rather large percentage of 
the farmer's annual income is spent for machinery to do 
farm work. Much of this machinery is replaced several 
years before its real hfe would justify. In such cases poor 
care, lack of adjustment, or replacement of parts is invari- 
ably the cause. Too many farmers have for their machine 
shed the open heavens. Sometimes a machine is thrown 
away and a new one is purchased, when by replacing a few 
of the worn parts the machine might be made as good as new. 

An application of a coat of paint to the wood and station- 
ary metal parts of a machine and a little lubricating oil to 



180 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

pinions, axles, and levers will often improve the looks and 
prolong the life of a machine. When a plow is not in use, 
the polished surfaces should be coated with grease suffi- 
ciently hard to insure its not running off; the other parts 
should be kept well painted. 

QUESTIONS 

1. How is the dropping of seed in the drill regulated? 

2. How wide a swath can be cut with a mower? A binder? What 

parts of the mower are likely to give way first? 

3. How is it possible to cut and thresh grain in one operation? 

4. Describe a method of stacking hay. 

5. Of what benefit is the fanning mill to the farmer? Enumerate 

the various steps employed in a fanning operation. 

6. What do you consider to be the most beneficial implement on the 

ordinary farm? Give your reasons. 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. Trace the moving parts in a mowing machine from the large wheel 

to the knife. How is the motion transmitted? Locate all the 
bearings to receive oil. Which bearings do you think need the 
most oil? 

2. Make a survey of several farms and find how many of the farmers 

have housed and cared properly for their machinery. What 
improvements by way of care could be made? 

3. Find a mowing machine out of repair. Locate the trouble and 

remedy it. 

4. Secure a dull mowing machine knife (or sickle) with some sec- 

tions broken. Remove the broken sections and rivet on good 
ones. Grind the knife properly. 

REFERENCES 

Farm Machinery and Farm Motors, Davidson and Chase. 

Dry-Farming, Widtsoe. 

Agricultural Engineering, Davidson. 

Handy Farm Devices and How to Make Them, Cobleigh. 

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. I. 

Soils, Lyon, Fippin, and Buckman. 

Farmers' Bulletin: 

No. 347. The Repair of Farm Equipment. 



CHAPTER XXV 

GRAIN CROPS 

Grain crops are the principal sources of concentrated food 
for both man and animal. They were among the first plants to 
be used by man, and the raising of them has always had an im- 
portant place in agriculture. Most of the grains are produced 
by plants of the grass family and are commonly called cereals. 




Figure 63. — Wheat harvesting in Kansas. 

Wheat has been known since the dawn of history and 
has always been a favorite food for man. Flour made from 
wheat gives a lighter bread than that made from any of 
the other grains. Wheat is raised in nearly all parts of the 
world, but the United States and Russia produce much more 
than any of the other countries. India, France, Austria- 
Hungary, Italy, Canada, Germany, Argentine, and Spain 
also contribute much toward the world's supply, which is 

181 



182 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

about three and a half bilHon bushels a year. Every 
month in the year wheat is harvested in some country. 

Wheat grows best on a rather heavy soil and is adapted 
to a cooler climate than corn. While it yields heaviest with 
a good supply of moisture, the best quality of grain is pro- 
duced under drier conditions. The most valuable constit- 
uent of wheat is gluten, which decreases with the increase 
of moisture during growth. 

There are at least 1,000 varieties of wheat known; but 
only about 250 of these have any importance. These vari- 
eties are grouped into eight types. Certain varieties are 
adapted to spring planting; others to fall planting. There 
are hard and soft varieties, hardness being caused partly 
by variety characteristics and partly by climate. Hard 
wheats have a high nitrogen content. 

No one variety is best for all conditions. Each farmer 
should find the variety best adapted to his farm. From 
one to two bushels of seed are usually planted to the acre, 
preferably with a drill on land that has been thoroughly 
prepared. The seed should be previously treated for smut. 

The kernel of wheat is made up of several distinct layers, 
but there are three principal parts: the outer layer from 
which bran is made; the inner, white portion which makes 
flour; and the inner, yellow portion at one end of which is 
the germ. It is from this germ, or embryo, that the young 
plant starts growing. Graham flour is made by grinding 
the whole kernel, while certain parts are sifted out to make 
the various grades of white flour. The by-products of mill- 
ing, such as bran, are used almost entirely as stock feed. 

Corn, first grown in America, was found by the Eu- 
ropeans when America was discovered. It was used ex- 
tensively by the Indians as a food and is still highly prized 
for this purpose by the native American races. It is not 
raised over nearly so wide an area as wheat, — more than 
three fourths of the entire crop of the world being produced 



GRAIN CROPS 



183 



in the United States, and more than half of the com in the 
United States being raised in 1912 in the following eight 
states, which are arranged according to the amount pro- 
duced: Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, Indiana, Nebraska, Kansas, 




Figure 64. — Corn under irrigation. 



Ohio, and Texas. In this country there are about four times 
as many bushels of corn produced as wheat, which amount 
would be over 30 bushels for every person in the country. 
Corn is very sensitive to temperature changes and needs 
hot weather during its growing season. Cold nights during 
this time greatly reduce the yield. Unlike the smaller cereals 
this crop requires much labor during the growing period, as 
it is greatly benefited by continued cultivation. It responds 
more than most crops to liberal applications of stable manure. 



184 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



and in a rotation is suited to follow crops leaving a sod. 

Corn may be classed in six groups: (1) pod corn, (2) pop 

corn, (3) flint corn, (4) dent corn, (5) soft, or flour, corn, and 

(6) sweet corn. Of these, the dent 
and flint are most important, while 
the pod corn has no economic value. 
These various types have kernels 
of very different structure and com- 
position. The dent corn is the type 
most widely grown in the corn belt, 
although the flint is also important. 
The yielding power and quality of 
corn have been greatly modified by 
breeding, and special-purpose corn 
is now common. The length of the 
growing season of each district is an 
important factor in selecting the 
variety to plant. 

The time for planting corn is 

later than for the small grains. 

Young corn plants are injured by 

frost, hence planting should be 

delayed till the danger of frost has 

passed. About a peck of seed is 

required to plant an acre. 

Corn is used mainly as a feed for live stock, as it is a good 

fattening ration. The entire plant is often harvested just 

before it is ripe and cut up for silage. Many important 

manufactured products are also made from this crop. 

Seed corn must be selected and stored with great care. 
The best ears should be taken from the best plants while 
standing and then stored where they will keep dry, as the ger- 
minating power of the kernels is greatly reduced by moisture. 
Oats. The oat is one of the most useful and widely 
known of the cereals. More than one half of the world's 




Figure 65. — Loose smut of oats. 



GRAIN CROPS 185 

supply of this crop is raised in Europe, but the United States 
produces more than any other country. Iowa and lUinois 
are the two great oat-producing states of the Union. There 
are more bushels of oats raised in the world each year than 
wheat, although the money value is not so large. 

The oat plant is more fit to grow in cold climates than 
either wheat or corn, and it requires a moist soil. A shortage 
of water will greatly reduce its yield. On the other hand, 
poor soils may produce good crops. About 150 varieties 
of oats are known; only a few are suited for fall planting. 

The kernel of the oat is enclosed in a hull which is not 
removed on threshing. This grain is prized very highly as 
a horse feed. It is also used in making oatmeal. In some 
countries this forms a large part of the diet of the people. 
The grain varies greatly in weight to the bushel and in 
composition, according to the amount of hull; hence, it is 
safer to buy it by weight than by measure. 

The preparation of the seed bed for oats is the same as for 
the other grains. The depth of planting varies from one to 
four inches, depending on the nature of the soil and the 
amount of moisture present. Oats should be planted early in 
the spring in quantities of from five to eight pecks under ordi- 
nary conditions. The seed should first be treated for smut. 

Oats are often raised for hay, in which case they are cut 
before ripe and handled like other hay crops. They make a 
palatable and nutritious forage. Even when oats are allowed 
to ripen and are harvested for grain the straw makes a good 
roughage for stock. 

Barley is raised over a wider range of climate than any 
other cereal. It is found from the North, where the soil 
thaws but a few inches in the summer time, to the South, 
where the climate is semitropical. While not sensitive to 
temperature, barley is more exacting than most of the cere- 
als in regard to the condition of the soil. It requires a 
well drained soil rather light in texture, and responds readily 



1S6 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



to proper preparation of the seed bed. In the rotation it 
does well after a hoed crop. The time and method of seed- 
ing are similar to those for oats. About two bushels of seed 
are ordinarily planted to the acre. 




A B c D E 

Figure 66. — Types of barley heads. A — Side view of head of new 
awnless barley . B — Separate grains and spikelets of the same. 
C — Front view of the head of same. D — Separate grains and 
spikelet of hooded barley. E — Head of hooded barley. 

Barley is grown almost entirely for malting and stock 
feed. A high starch content, desired for malting, is not so 
desirable when the grain is fed. In raising this crop the vari- 
ety should be suited to the use for which it is intended. 
For fattening live stock barley is hardly equal to corn, but 
for producing animal growth is perhaps the best cereal. 

The common varieties when threshed retain the hull, but 
there are a number of hull-less, or bald types. There are 
both spring and fall varieties. 

Rye is sometimes called a poverty crop, doubtless on 
account of its ability to grow on soils that are too poor to 
produce other cereals. Notwithstanding this characteris- 
tic, it responds readily to a good soil and proper treatment. 



GRAIN CROPS 



187 



Rye is fifth in importance among the cereals of the United 
States. It is the chief grain raised in Russia where more 
than one half the crop of the world is grown. In Europe it 
is used largely for flour, while in this country it is fed to 
stock. A third use is the making of alcoholic drinks. The 



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Figure 67. — Kaoliang on a dry-farm. 

straw is too tough to make good feed, but it often brings a 
good price for weaving and packing and for stuffing horse 
collars. Unlike the other cereals, but few varieties of this 
crop are known; it is usually classified simply as winter and 
spring rye. The winter type is as a rule the heavier pro- 
ducer and is often used as a fall and winter pasture. 

Rye produces a long, slender straw, which is so strong 
that it seldom lodges. This habit of growth, together with 
the fact that it matures early, makes it a favorite nurse 
crop in many localities. Rye is seldom an entire failure, 
although it never yields heavily. 

The methods of culture of rye are similar to those of the 
other small grains. Five or six pecks of seed to the acre are 
planted. It has few enemies, the worst being ergot, a disease 
of the grain, which renders it unfit for man or beast. 



188 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



Emmer is closely related to wheat. A striking difference 
in appearance, however, is that the emmer contains a hull 
around the kernel which is not removed by threshing. This 
crop has been raised since the dawn of history, but it has 
not been grown so extensively on the western hemisphere 
as some of the other cereals. 



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Figure 68. — Effect of irrigation on yield of grain and stover. 

Drought resistance is claimed as one of its most valuable 
characteristics and it will doubtless gain a place as a crop 
for arid regions. Its methods of culture are similar to those 
of wheat, and its use is chiefly as a feed for live stock. 

The grain sorghums include a number of crops which, 
when young, resemble corn, but which produce their grain 
in the head corresponding to the tassel of the corn. These 
crops have been introduced from the arid parts of the old 
world and are now grown extensively in the southern 



GRAIN CROPS 189 

portion of the Great Plains and to a less extent in other arid 
sections of the country. These grains are used principally 
for stock, especially for chicken feed. In some sections they 
are ground for human food. Drought resistance and heavy 
yielding power recommend them to the dry-farmer. 

Buckwheat is a grain produced for its flour, which is used 
extensively in making the well-known buckwheat cakes. It 
is raised in only a few states. New York and Pennsylvania 
producing two thirds of the nation's crop. Unlike most of 
the other grains, buckwheat does not belong to the grass 
family, but to a group of plants quite different in form and 
manner of growth. 

Rice is eaten by more than one half of the human family. 
It is the chief food of many of the peoples of Asia. The 
plant is more nearly related to corn and the sorghums than 
to the other cereals. 

SCORE CARDS 
Wheat 

Uniformity Points 

(a) Color 10 

(b) Size of kernel 5 

Purity 

(a) Trueness to type and variety 10 

(b) Freedom from foreign matter 10 

Condition of grain 

(a) Freedom from must and smut 15 

(b) Freedom from broken kernels 5 

Hardness and Texture 20 

Weight per bushel 25 

~~m 

Oats 

Color (uniform, bright) 10 

Freedom from must and smut 15 

Freedom from foreign matter 10 

Freedom from injured kernels 10 

Size of kernels 5 

Weight per bushel • 50 

100 



190 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

Corn 

Uniformity of lot 10 

Color (uniform, bright) . 10 

Maturity 25 

Freedom from molds and excessive moisture 10 

Freedom from smut, insect, and other injury 10 

Size and shape of ear, row, kernel 10 

Quantity 

(a) Percentage of grain to cob 10 

(b) Fullness of butts and tips 5 

(c) Depth and closeness of kernels 5 

Texture 5 

100 
Barley 

Color (uniform, bright) 25 

Freedom from odors,, must, etc 25 

Freedom from foreign matter 10 

Freedom from injured kernels 10 

Texture 15 

Weight per bushel 15 

100 

QUESTIONS 

1. Where is most of the wheat of the world produced? 

2. What special qualities of wheat make it desirable for bread? 

3. Under what conditions does wheat grow best? 

4. What are the main parts of a wheat kernel? 

5. What conditions are required for the best growth of corn? 

6. What are the classes of corn? Describe each. 

7. Give directions for getting good seed corn. 

8. What are the chief uses of corn? 

9. Under what conditions do oats thrive best? 

10. Give the chief uses of oats. 

11. How does barley compare with the other grains in adaptation to 

climate? 

12. How does barley compare with corn as a stock feed? 

13. Under what conditions would it pay to raise rye? 

14. To what conditions are grain sorghums suited? 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. Take a wood block. With an auger bore holes in it a half inch 
deep. Cover with pasteboard having holes in it. Make a col- 



GRAIN CROPS 191 

lection of various grains. Place some of each in a hole. Label. 
Cover with glass and preserve. 
Another method is to put the samples in small bottles and label. 
The bottles may be stood in holes in heavy pasteboard which 
is raised an inch or so above the bottom of the box by turn- 
ing down the ends of the pasteboard, after which it should 
fit the box closely. 

REFERENCES 

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. II. 
Corn, Bowman and Crossley. 
Corn Crops, Montgomery. 
Farm Crops, Burkett. 
The Book of Wheat, Dondlinger. 
Southern Field Crops, Duggar. 
The Cereals in America, Hunt. 
Corn Plants, Sargent. 
Manual of Corn Judging, Shamel. 
Dry-Farming, Widtsoe. 
Field Crops, Wilson and Warburton. 
Field Crop Production, Livingston. 
Principles of Agronomy, Harris and Stewart. 
Productive Farm Crops, Montgomery. 
Farmers' Bulletins: 

No. 313. Harvesting and Storing Corn. 
322. Milo as a Dry-land Grain Crop. 

399. Irrigation of Grain. 

400. A More Profitable Corn-planting Method. 

414. Corn Cultivation. 

415. Seed Corn. 

420. Oats: Growing the Crop. 

433. Barley: Growing the Crop. 

507. The Smuts of Wheat, Oats, Barley, and Corn. 

518. Winter Barley. 

534. Durum Wheat. 

544. Pop Corn for the Market. 

680. Varieties of Hard Spring Wheat. 

704. Grain Farming in the Corn Belt. 

732. Marquis Wheat. 

863. Irrigation of Grain. 

885. Wheat Growing in the Southeastern States. 

895. Growing Winter Wheat on the Great Plains. 



CHAPTER XXVI 



FORAGE CROPS 

ALFALFA 

Alfalfa, or lucern, has been used as a forage since the 
dawn of history. It was brought to America by the early 
settlers but attracted little attention until about fifty years 
ago when its growth in the West became important. 







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Figure 



-Alfalfa in rows on a dry-farm. 



The alfalfa plant belongs to the family of legumes, which, 
through the growth of nodule-forming bacteria on their 
roots, are able to fix nitrogen from the air and thereby help 
maintain the fertility of the soil. It grows from year to 
year without reseeding and produces from two to six crops 
of forage each season, according to the length of the growing 
period. Its roots grow very deep and are thus able to draw 
water and food from a large area. In the United States 
most of the alfalfa is raised in the western states, although 

192 



FORAGE CROPS 193 

it is being introduced into the East very rapidly. It is 
raised all over the world, especially in South America. 

Alfalfa is naturally adapted to a warm climate, although 
some strains are successfully grown where it is rather cold. 
It requires a well-drained soil; a high hme content also favors 
growth. Like other legumes, it thrives only in soil contain- 
ing the kind of bacteria suited to grow on its roots to help 




Figure 70. — A good field of alfalfa. 

in supplying it with nitrogen. Some soils have to be arti- 
ficially inoculated with the germ before they are suitable for 
the growth of alfalfa. This inoculation is sometimes done 
by adding pure cultures of the bacteria to the seed or soil, 
but it is usually better to get soil from an old alfalfa field 
which is known to be inoculated and spread this over the 
new field at the rate of at least 100 pounds to the acre. 

The seed may be planted any time from April to October, 
but it is usually thought that April is the best time with 
August or September as the next best. The quantity of 
seed to be used will depend on the soil and climate. Deep, 
fertile soils in moderate climates with good rainfall can 
develop more seed than poor soils in dry and cold or hot 

13— 



194 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

regions. The quantity used varies from five to thirty pounds 
to the acre. The greatest care should be taken to prepare 
the land properly, in order to get a good, even stand, since 
one seeding serves for a number of years. In planting al- 
falfa it is sometimes advisable to sow the seed with a nurse 
crop like barley, wheat, or rj^e. This method enables the 
farmer to get a crop of grain during the first year while the 
alfalfa is establishing itself. 

In the dry lands of the West, the raising of alfalfa seed 
is very profitable where conditions are favorable. Seed pro- 
duction usually requires different conditions from those nec- 
essary to raise the best forage. 

As a feed for live stock, alfalfa is unsurpassed. There is 
no crop which stock relish more or which has a higher 
nutritive value. 

THE CLOVERS 

The clovers are closely related to alfalfa. They are 
grown in nearly all parts of the United States, over a great 
part of which they are the chief legume crop. They are 
much better known in the eastern states than is alfalfa, 
while in the western states the opposite is the case. 

The clovers are suited to grow with the grasses and fit 
well into crop rotations. As a rule they do not yield so 
many tons to the acre as alfalfa; and clover hay is not usu- 
ally regarded as equal to alfalfa in feeding value. Many 
different clovers are known, but only a few are important. 

Red clover is raised in all parts of the country. It is the 
best known and most useful of all the clovers. There are 
two varieties: the common, or medium, and the mammoth. 
Except for size these look alike and their seeds cannot be 
distinguished. The medium matures considerably earlier 
than the mammoth which matures at the same time as timo- 
thy. This earlier maturity is quite an advantage in hay 
making. Red clover requires a good, well-drained soil. It 



FORAGE CROPS 195 

may produce two cuttings in a season, if the first cutting is 
made early. By the time the crop grows two years most 
of it is usually killed by the root borer and it needs to be 
reseeded. It is a good crop to sow in all meadow and pas- 
ture mixtures for re-establishing fertility of soil. 

Alsike clover is much like the red in many respects. 
Its flowers are pink instead of red, and the pattern of its 
leaf is different. It is adapted to grow on heavy soil, al- 
though it will grow on almost any soil that is sufficiently 
wet. It is better suited to the northern than to the south- 
ern part of the country. It can be grown as a hay crop 
either alone or mixed with grasses, and should always be 
included in a pasture or meadow mixture that is to be sown 
on low, wet lands. 

White clover is much smaller than the kinds already 
mentioned. It rarely produces enough forage to be raised 
profitably alone, but it is a good plan to include it in mixtures 
for pastures and lawns, as it readily fills in space not occu- 
pied by other plants. It grows close to the ground, forming 
a good turf. 

Crimson clover is an important crop in some parts of 
the South, but it is not suited to cold climates. In regions 
adapted to its growth it makes a good crop for orchards. 
It is an annual plant and prefers sandy soils. An abundance 
of hairs, which may form balls in the stomachs of horses, 
greatly lessens its feeding value. 

Sweet clover is a strong vigorous growing biennial. It 
is a very hardy plant producing rather heavy stems which, 
coupled with its strong odor and bitter taste, cause it to be 
less palatable for live stock than clovers and alfalfa. It 
must, therefore, be cut young when cured for hay. It is 
often regarded as a weed, because it grows by ditch banks 
and because it is difficult to eradicate. If kept from pro- 
ducing seed, however, it can soon be killed out. It is a 
good plant to resist alkali and has promise as pasture or as 



196 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

a green-manuring crop in alkali districts. Its use as a hay 
crop is increasing rapidly. 

OTHER LEGUMES 

Field peas begin growth in an upright position, but as 
the plants get older they trail on the ground. This trailing 
habit makes the crop unsuitable for pasture, and also makes 
desirable a companion crop to serve as a support. Oats 
are often used for this purpose. The two crops grown to- 
gether make a first-class forage. They are especially suited 
to be used in a soiling system in cool, moist areas, such as 
the high mountain valleys of the West. 

The cowpea is a leguminous plant which is increasing 
very rapidly in agricultural importance. In the South it 
occupies much the same place that clover holds farther 
north. In form it resembles the bean more than the pea. It 
is often raised with corn, being planted between rows when 
the corn is cultivated the last time. Ordinarily the cow- 
pea does not receive much cultivation, although it responds 
well to it. One of its principal uses is as a green manure. 

The soy bean is an upright, rather woody annual, grow- 
ing three and sometimes four feet high. In many respects 
it resembles the cowpea. Their places of growth and uses 
are similar. In the Orient the soy bean is used very exten- 
sively. It should receive more attention in many parts of 
this country, as it is used both for its seed and as forage. 
It has great promise as a source of oil. 

Vetch. Two types of vetch are commonly raised, the 
winter, or hairy, vetch and spring vetch. The vetches are 
used extensively as green manures and are usually grown 
with other crops. Rye and vetch go well together and 
when properly handled make a good forage. 

THE GRASSES 
Grass covers great areas of land. It is used to fill in 
where other crops are not raised. Noth withstanding its 



FORAGE CR0P8 197 

great importance but little study is given to it in comparison 
with other crops. Too often the land sown to grass is given 
no attention aside from that neccessary to harvest the crop. 
The grasses are crop plants and should be treated as such 
by being given the culture they merit. 

Varieties should be selected to suit the locality in which 
they are to be raised, and the land should be properly pre- 
pared. Care should be taken in buying grass seed, as it is 




Figure 71 — Hay in the West. 

often very much adulterated with weed seeds and is often 
low in germinating power. 

In the West, where alfalfa is grown so extensively, farmers 
have not become so well acquainted with the value of the 
grasses and know little of the methods of handhng them. 

Timothy is the best known grass and the most important 
hay-producing plant in America. It does best in the north- 
eastern portion of the United States, but is grown to some 
extent in almost all parts of the country. It is adapted to 
a cool climate and a rather heavy, moist soil. It is an easy 
crop to start and its seed is cheap. It usually produces 
better for the first few years after seeding than later. Horses 
relish the hay, which always brings a high price. It is 



198 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



often taken as the standard which sets the price of other 
hay. It is decidedly inferior to alfalfa as a cow feed, and it 
would often pay the farmer to sell his timothy and buy some 
leguminous hay. Fields raising timothy should not be al- 
lowed to remain many years without being plowed and 
planted to something else. Its sod, when plowed under, 
leaves the soil in good condition for the next crop, especially 
if clover was mixed with it. 

Kentucky blue grass is raised in nearly all parts of the 

country, although 
it does not do so 
well in the hotter 
parts of the South. 
It is much more 
important as a 
pasture than as a 
hay grass. It is, 
however, cured in 
some districts. 
Canada blue grass 
is much like the 
Kentucky, although inferior in producing power. It will, 
however, grow on poorer land. Its seed is often found as an 
adulterant in the more expensive Kentucky blue grass seed. 
Orchard grass is a tall, tufted grass adapted to grow in 
deep rich soils. It produces a coarse forage which makes 
a good feed if cut when blossoming begins, but if left longer 
the hay is tough. It starts early in the spring, and is, as a 
result, a good crop to include in a pasture mixture. As its 
name indicates, it grows well in the shade of trees. 

Smooth brome grass was introduced from Russia. It 
is one of the most valuable grasses for the arid regions. It 
starts early in the spring and grows late in the fall. The 
hay is liked by cattle, horses, and sheep. It is suited both 
for pasture and hay production. On account of its strongly 




Figure 72. — Millet under irrigation. 



FORAGE CR0P8 199 

stoloniferous habit it is likely to become ''root bound" in a 
few years and consequently should not be raised too long in 
one place without plowing. In planting this grass about 
twenty pounds of seed to the acre is required. 

Redtop is one of the most important of the hay grasses, 
though not so popular as timothy, on account of its being 
unpalatable. It is adapted to growth on wet soils and gives 
a fair yield on poor soils. 

The millets are summer-growing crops, requiring con- 
siderable heat and maturing in a short time. In this coun- 
try they are used almost entirely as a forage crop, but in 
Asia they have been raised for ages as a grain for human 
food. There is a number of distinct types of millet. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is a legume? 

2. Name some conditions required for the best growth of alfalfa. 

3. How does alfalfa compare with the grasses as a feed for stock? 

4. Give the conditions under which the different clovers thrive best. 

5. Under what conditions can field peas be raised to advantage? 

6. Compare cowpeas, soy beans, and vetch. 

7. Compare the relative merits of timothy, blue grass, orchard 

grass, redtop, and brome grass. 

8. What other kinds of grass are raised in your vicinity? 

9. What are the millets used for? 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. Make a collection of forage plants. 

2. Collect pictures of haying methods. 

3. Measure a haystack and compute the tons of hay in it. This is 

done by measuring the width of the stack, the length, and the 

overcast. The overcast is the distance straight over the stack 

from the ground on one side to a corresponding point on the 

ground on the other side. 

Overcast X Width X Length 

= cu. ft. m stack. 

4 

Divide this by 450 (if hay has been long stacked; if not, 500 

cu. ft.) to find the number of tons. The formula is expressed 

^, O X W X L . ^^^ ^ 
thus: 450 = tons 



200 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

4. Dig up an alfalfa plant to the depth of a foot. Dig carefully so 
as to preserve the small roots, especially those near the sur- 
face. Note the small enlargements about the size of a pin- 
head. These are nodules in which the bacteria live. 
REFERENCES 
Forage Plants and Their Culture, Piper. 
The Book of Alfalfa, Coburn. 
Alfalfa in America, Wing. 
Forage and Fiber Crops in America, Hunt. 
Grasses, Shaw. 

Farm Grasses in the United States, Spillman. 
Field Crops, Wilson and Warburton. 
Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. II. 
Field Crop Production, Livingston. 
Principles of Agronomy, Harris and Stewart. 
Productive Farm Crops, Montgomery. 
Farmers' Bulletins: 
No. 121. Beans, Peas, and other Legumes as Food. 

164. Rape as a Forage Crop. 

318. Cowpeas. 

331. Forage Crops for Hogs in Kansas and Oklahoma. 

339. Alfalfa. 

382. The Adulteration of Forage Plant Seeds. 

458. The Best Two Sweet Sorghums for Forage. 

485. Sweet Clover. 

495. Alfalfa Seed Production. 

502. Timothy Production on Irrigated Land in the North- 
western States. 

508. Market Hay. 

515. Vetches. 

550. Crimson Clover: Growing the Crop. 

690. The Field Pea. 

730. Button Clover. 

741. The Alfalfa Weevil and Methods of Controlling It. 

757. Commercial Varieties of Alfalfa. 

793. Foxtail Millet. 

797. Sweet Clover; Growing the Crop. 

814. Bermuda Grass. 

820. Sweet Clover; Utilization. 

832. Sweet Clover; Harvesting and Threshing the Seed Crop. 

865. Irrigation of Alfalfa. 

886. Harvesting Soy Bean Seed. 



CHAPTER XXVII 



SUGAR BEETS AND OTHER ROOT CROPS 



The root crops are of very great importance to the agri- 
culture of the world, both as a direct food for man and as a 
means of sustenance for domestic animals. These crops are 

especially valuable on 
account of their large 
yield and their succu- 
lence, or large percent- 
age of water. The whole 
agriculture of England 
was improved in the 17th 
century by the extensive 
introduction of root 
crops, and to-day Eng- 
land is noted for the use 
of roots in feeding stock. 

SUGAR BEETS 

The sugar beet be- 
longs to a group of bien- 
nial plants which store up food in their roots during one 
season and use this stored material in the production of 
seed the next year. The economic value of these plants 
depends on the use of this stored material. 

History. Beets have been used for making sugar on a 
commercial scale only a little over a hundred years, the first 
factory being built in Silesia in 1805. Germany and France 
were the first countries to give the industry great promi- 
nence. Sugar beet raising in the United States has been 
developed almost entirely in the last two or three decades. 

201 




Figure 73. — A good type of sugar beets. 



202 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



Production. Germany and Russia have raised about as 
many sugar beets as the rest of the world together. In 1910 
the world produced eight and one half milUon tons of sugar 
from beets, while the United States produced but one half 
a million tons. Michigan, Colorado, California, and Utah 




Figure 74. — Yield of beet roots and tops on plants receiving various quantities of 
irrigation water at different stages. Average for five years. 



are our chief producers of sugar beets. Utah leads in the 
number of tons of beets raised to the acre, having produced 
14.54 tons, as a ten years' average, while the average for 
the whole country was but 9.71 tons. 

Condition of Growth. Sugar beets require a rather cool 
climate, but need a large amount of sunshine for the pro- 
duction of sugar. They flourish in a moist soil, but can not 
endure water-logged land. They are able to stand more 
alkali than most crops. Beet land should be given a good 
dressing of barnyard manure every few years. Greater care 
needs to be taken to get the soil in good condition than is 
necessary with the cereals. It should be plowed deeply in 



SUGAR BEETS AND OTHER ROOT CROPS 203 

the fall. Ill the spring the land should be thoroughly tilled 
and made as mellow as possible. 

Seeding. Planting is done early in the spring, usually 
earlier than corn. About twenty pounds of seed to the 
acre are sown, although this amount varies somewhat with 
conditions. The rows are usually about twenty inches apart, 
but are sometimes as close as eleven or as far apart as twenty- 
seven inches. By placing the rows closer together larger 




Figure 75. — A high yielding svigar beet field. 

yields to the acre are secured, but less for the labor involved ; 
and labor is a very important item in raising sugar beets. 

Thinning. When the plants have about four leaves they 
have to be thinned. A block is chopped out with a hoe, 
leaving little bunches from eight to twelve inches apart. 
Each bunch must then be thinned by hand, leaving but one 
plant in a place, in order that the beets may have the proper 
space. Thinning is the most tedious and expensive opera- 
tion in beet growing. 

Cultivation. During the growing season beets require 
considerable cultivation. There is at present good machin- 
ery on the market with which to do this work. Shallow 
cultivation should begin when the plants are small. 



204 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



Irrigation. If watered too much the beets grow so large 
and the sugar content is so low that the factories are com- 
pelled to refuse them. The best kind of irrigation will give 
the beets a regular supply of moisture during growth and 
allow them to ripen properly. An irrigation just before har- 




Figure 76. — Beets piled in the field. The tops are also saved. 

vest may be undesirable. Water too early in the season is 
also objectionable. 

Harvesting. The ripening of beets is indicated by the 
withering of the leaves, which usually occurs about the 
middle of October. Beets will stand some frost, but are 
better if not subjected to severe freezing. They should, 
therefore, be dug as soon after they are ripe as convenient. 
There is a number of implements for digging the beets. 
The one to use depends largely on the kind of soil. 

Uses. Sugar beets are used largely for the manufacture 
of sugar, but on account of their succulence they also make 
a good feed for live stock. By-products of sugar making, 
such as pulp and molasses, are used extensively as feed. 

Seed. The successful making of sugar from beets de- 
pends on their containing a high content of sugar. This 



SUGAR BEETS AND OTHER ROOT CROPS 



205 



has been obtained by many years of careful selection, and, 
in order to maintain it, continued selection is necessary. 
Great care must, therefore, be exercised in producing the 
seed. Until the last few years practically all the seed used 



iiiiijfyMMiiiiii 






Figure 77. — Pedigree sugar beet seed at Utah Experiment Station. 

in the United States was imported from Europe, but now 
much is produced in a number of the western states. 

Rotation. Sugar beets are well adapted to enter into a 
crop rotation. They occupy about the same place in the 
rotation as potatoes or corn. On account of their deep 
rooting, beets leave the soil in good condition for the crop 
that follows. This is especially true if manure has been 
applied to the land before planting. It is a mistake to 
plant land continuously to beets simply because they pay. 
The results of a proper rotation are much better. 

Importance. In regions where sugar beets can be prof- 
itably produced the whole agriculture of the region is 



206 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

improved by raising them. They teach better methods of 
tillage and thus add to the producing power of the soil. They 
make a crop which the farmer can sell for cash at a price he 
can depend on. 

OTHER ROOTS 

Mangel- wurzels are grown extensively as a stock feed. 
Their habit of growth is similar to that of sugar beets, but 
differs in that a considerable part of the mangel grows out 
of the ground. Mangel-wurzels can withstand drought bet- 
ter than the other root crops. The method of preparing the 
land for this crop is similar to that for sugar beets. From 
six to eight pounds of seed are sown to the acre. In feeding 
value, they are about equal to sugar beets, but they have 
less sugar and dry matter. 

Turnips and rutabagas are grown extensively in some 
sections of the country. The preparation of the soil and 
the cultivation, harvesting, and storing of these crops is 
similar to that for mangel-wurzels. They do best on a 
sandy soil. Four pounds of rutabaga and three pounds of 
turnip seed are usually sown per acre. Early seeding is de- 
sirable. The yields of these crops are as a rule less than for 
mangel-wurzels. In Canada, turnips and rutabagas are the 
chief root crops for stock feeding. 

Carrots have a wider climatic adaptation than mangel- 
wurzels and rutabagas and do best in a deep, sandy loam. 
It is customary to sow about six pounds of seed to the acre, 
although with good seed and seed ]:)ed less may be used. 
Difficulty is often experienced in getting a good stand of 
carrots; consequently there should be great care in plant- 
ing. The yield is from ten to thirty tons to the acre, with 
the percentage of dry matter higher than for other root 
crops except sugar beets. Carrots are especially good for 
horses and also form an important human food. 



SUGAR BEETS AND OTHER ROOT CROPS 207 

QUESTIONS 

1. What place do root crops have on the ordinary farm? 

2. Give the history of the beet sugar industry. 

3. Under what conditions do sugar beets grow best? 

4. Give directions for handling a crop of sugar beets. 

5. Why is thinning of beets necessary? 

6. Compare mangel-wurzels, turnips, rutabagas, and carrots as 

regards methods of handling and uses. 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. Make a collection of the various root crops, label and preserve. 

2. Collect a sackful of some root crop — sugar beets, mangels, carrots, 

or turnips. Select out the medium-sized, smooth ones. These 
are the most desirable. Place those irregularly shaped in one 
pile; those very large and very small in another; and those 
bruised, broken, or otherwise injured in another. The last three 
piles are undesirable. 

REFERENCES 

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. II. 

Forage and Fiber Crops in America, Hunt. 

Sugar at a Glance, Palmer. Senate Document 890. 

Field Crops, Wilson and Warburton. 

Story of Sugar, Surface. 

Forage Plants and Their Culture, Piper. 

The Sugar Beet, Ware. 

Principles of Agronomy, Harris and Stewart. 

Sugar Beet Growers' Annual, Sugar Gazette Co. 

The Sugar Beet in America,. Harris. 

Farmers' Bulletins: 

No. 392. Irrigation of Sugar Beets. 

567. Sugar Beet Growing Under Irrigation. 

568. Sugar Beet Growing Under Humid Conditions. 
618, Leaf -Spot: a Disease of Sugar Beets. 



CHAPTER XXVIII 
POTATOES 

The potato is a native of America. The Spanish con- 
querors of Peru introduced it into Spain and Portugal some- 
time during the middle part of the sixteenth century. From 
there it spread into Italy, and later to other parts of Europe. 
Spanish voyagers carried it to Virginia whence it was taken 
to England at the time of Sir Walter Raleigh's voyages. 
From England potato culture spread rapidly into Ireland, 
where, at the beginning of the eighteenth century, the crop 
had become common. Its almost universal use in Ireland 
since that time has given it the common name of Irish potato. 
Ireland still leads in the use of the potato with an annual 
per capita consumption of twentj^-five bushels, about seven 
times that of the United States. 

The potato plant is an annual, which in its wild state is 
reproduced freely by seeds. The tubers are very small 
and woody. The cultivated potato rarely seeds, the plant 
having become perennial through its tubers. The main verti- 
cal underground stem varies in length with the depth of 
the planting. This stem produces branches, the ends of 
which enlarge and form tubers. Usually from two to four 
roots start from the base of each tuber-forming branch. 
Three or four inches below the surface of the soil the roots 
extend for about eighteen inches horizontally and then turn 
and go downward, penetrating from one to five feet. 

The tuber is not a seed, but a swollen, underground stem 
with its eyes equivalent to the leaf buds on a tree. It is 
simply a branch in which the plant stores food. 

When a potato is cut in halves, four layers may be seen. 
Beginning at the outside, the first is the external cortical, 

208 



POTATOES 209 

which is poor in starch; next is the internal cortical, rich in 
starch; then, the external medullary, also rich in starch; 
and, finally, in the center the internal medullary, very poor 
in starch. A potato to have good cooking quality should 
have proportionately large cortical and external medullary 
and small internal medullary. 

The Potato Wanted. The market demands a medium- 
sized potato, between two and four inches in diameter, and 
weighing from one half to one pound. 

The flat-round or oval shapes with shallow eyes are in 
greatest demand; they are of better quality and waste less 
in peeling. White, or yellowish-white, skin, and white, fine, 
firm-textured flesh are preferred except in the South where 
red is favored. Thick-skinned varieties are usually preferred, 
because they can be handled with less danger of being 
bruised or otherwise injured. 

Good quality in potatoes is indicated by the tuber's be- 
coming mealy when cooked. This mealiness is due to the 
separating of cells or to the breaking of the cell-walls, causing 
the starch grains inside to mingle together in a mass. If, how- 
ever, the cell-walls do not burst, but can be easily mashed 
by applying slight pressure (as with a table fork), the quality 
may be regarded as medium. In case the potato remains 
solid, heavy, and watery after being cooked, the quality is 
poor. Where potatoes are planted so deep that the. change 
of temperature between night and day does not affect them, 
and where constant favorable moisture can be maintained, 
the quality will probably be good, because the even temper- 
ature favors the development of starch. Where potatoes are 
planted shallow and developed near the surface of the ground, 
the change of temperature between night and day injures 
the quality. Exposure to light injures the quahty by caus- 
ing the potatoes to turn green. 

Seed Bed. Potatoes do best in fight soils such as deep, 
friable loams and sandy loams. The seed bed should be 

14— 



210 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

well-prepared, because the growing tubers exert a consider- 
able pressure in every direction, and, if the seed bed is lumpy 
and rough, they will become knotty and irregular. As soon 
as possible in the spring it should be thoroughly harrowed 
to conserve the moisture, and also to bring weed seeds near 
the surface of the ground where they will germinate. Just 
before the potatoes are to be planted the ground should be 
harrowed again to kill the growing weeds. 

Seed. If small, poor tubers be planted, the tendency 
will be toward the production of a larger number of small 
potatoes than if tubers of the size and shape desired be 
planted. The proper way to select tubers for planting, if 
at all possible, is to make an inspection of the individual 
hills as they are growing in the field, putting a stake by each 
hill which has a good, healthful, upright top with a large 
proportion of leaves to stems. When the time comes to 
harvest, these selected hills should be dug by hand and the 
ones containing the greatest number of best sized and best 
shaped tubers should be saved for seed. They should be 
stored and planted by themselves the following spring. 
From them enough will probably be secured to plant the 
patch. Selection ought to be made in this way each year. 

Before cutting, the seed potatoes ought to be soaked two 
hours in corrosive sublimate 2 oz. to each 15 gallons of 
water or in formalin 1 pint to 25 or 30 gallons of water. 

Cutting Seed. The seed potatoes should be planted soon 
after they are cut; since, if the cut pieces be allowed to dry 
out before planting, the plants will be weak and slow in 
coming up. Quarters and two-eye pieces are probably the 
best sizes of sets. If cut into two-eye pieces, care should be 
taken that the eyes are strong, that is, prominent. The eye 
of the potato need not be deep, but should be well defined. 
A shallow, poorly defined eye is regarded as low in vitality. 

The average acre yield in the intermountain region is 
around 140 bushels, whereas that of the whole United States is 



POTATOES 



211 



about 93 bushels. Central Europe has an average of nearly 
200 bushels, due to a particularly favorable climate and to 
great care in seed selection and treatment. 

Planting. A machine planter is economical for large 
acreages; but, when only small patches are grown, hand 




Figure 78. — A potato planter at work. 

planting is the most practical way. The furrows for plant- 
ing should be made while the seed potatoes are drying after 
being treated for disease. Straight furrows are opened with a 
shovel plow, the potatoes dropped as soon as possible, and 
covered with moist soil. Covering may be done with a 
leveler, followed by a harrow. Potatoes should be planted 
in rows three feet apart and from twelve to eighteen 
inches apart in the row. 

The depth of planting will depend on soil, moisture, and 
cultural methods. The new tubers should develop where 
they can get sufficient air and moisture to make a maximum 
development. In a Hght soil, this depth will probably be 
between four and seven inches while on a heavier soil it may 
be between three and five inches. Deep planting produces 



212 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

better quality and a larger percentage of marketable potatoes. 
Planting should be deeper in dry than in wet soils, and in 
loose than in compact ones. 

Cultivation. After the potatoes are planted the land 
should be thoroughly harrowed, and again when they, are just 
coming up, and after storms large enough to cause the soil 
to crust. Harrowing ought to be discontinued as soon as 
the harrow injures the vines. Tillage may be continued 
with a small-toothed cultivator, running at a depth of from 
two to four inches. As a rule, the first cultivation should 
be somewhat deep, whereas the later ones should be rather 
shallow to avoid injuring the roots, disturbing the -tubers, and 
hilling the vines too much. 

Irrigation. Where the seed bed has been properly pre- 
pared and the cultivation thoroughly done, it will in most 
cases not be necessary to irrigate until after the vines have 
blossomed. They should be ridged up slightly, and every 
alternate row irrigated. At the next irrigation the other 
half of rows should be furrowed out and water applied to 
these. During all other irrigations, run the water through 
all the rows, cultivating as soon after each irrigation as the 
soil will permit. If the plants will not go without water 
until after blossoming, it is well to irrigate earlier. If the 
soil is heavy and clayey, the irrigation furrows should be 
deep; otherwise shallow furrows are best. 

Too much water has a tendency to lower the vitality and 
quality of the potatoes. Probably from fifteen to twenty- 
five inches will give the maximum yield. The aim in irrigat- 
ing should be to keep the soil at nearly an even temperature 
and with nearly the same moisture content throughout the 
growing period. These conditions encourage continuous 
starch formation. 

Harvesting. The usual method of digging, when small 
areas are grown, is to turn out the potatoes with a plow. 
When large areas are handled, the potato digger should be 



POTATOES 



213 



used. If the ground has been properly cultivated, the 
labor at the time of digging is little, although on land that is 
foul with weeds or that is cracked and baked it will be great. 





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Figure 79. — A potato harvesting scene. 



Prices and markets have varied so much in the last 
forty years that farmers could not estimate closely at plant- 
ing time what their returns at harvest were likely to be. 
This uncertainty led to much speculative planting. When 
prices were high large acreages were planted. The markets 
were glutted the next fall and havoc was wrought with 



214 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

prices. Sometimes no market could be found, thousands of 
bushels rotting in the pits or being dumped on waste land. 
A company in Colorado hit on a scheme of growing the same 
area each season, carefully sorting the potatoes, and market- 
ing m large quantities. This plan helped materially. 

Storing. Potatoes not marketed soon after harvesting 
must be stored in some cool, dark, well-ventilated place. 
The ordinary cellar on the farm will usually do for this pur- 
pose, provided it is dry. A good pit in which the tempera- 
ture can be held comparatively low and constant is also 
good. The following method of storing potatoes is practiced 
by some of the most successful potato growers : 

They dig a pit about one foot in depth, four feet in 
width, and of any length desired. This is left open until it 
cools down nearly to freezing temperature. The potatoes to 
be stored are then put into the pit, nicely rounded up, and 
covered with a layer of from eight to twelve inches of straw 
(wheat or rye preferred), over which is thrown three or four 
inches of earth. Stovepipes or wooden troughs, closed with a 
roll of cloth in cold weather, should be inserted at intervals 
as ventilators. The layer of earth is allowed to freeze, and 
then more straw and earth are added. 

Potatoes have been kept in this manner until the middle 
of April, and, when taken out, were in fine condition for mar- 
keting or planting; but cellars are usually safer than pits. 

Varieties. The importance of growing only one or two 
of the most thoroughly tested varieties cannot be too strongly 
emphasized. The variety selected should yield well, should 
be acclimated, have disease resistance, be vigorous, and be the 
kind of potato which markets demand. The following 
varieties have all done well in the intermountain region : 
Early Late 

Early Eureka Freeman Pearl 

Early Ohio Majestic Peachblow 

Early Rose Idaho Rural Netted Gem 

Early Russet Peerless Market Prize 



POTATOES 215 

QUESTIONS 

1. Give a short history of the potato. 

2. What is a potato? Describe the plant and tuber. 

3. To what kind of a soil and climate is the potato best adapted? 

4. How would you test seed potatoes for disease? 

5. How should seed potatoes for planting be cut? 

6. State irrigation and cultivation requirements. 

7. How is good quality in potatoes secured? How can you tell good 

quality? 

8. Describe a method of seed selection. 

9. Give the main points in storage of potatoes. 

10. Discuss the problem of variety for a locahty. Name some good 
varieties. 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. Grate several potatoes to fine pulp and shake in water. Allow 

to stand in a deep, narrow vessel for a few hours. Remove 
scum and shake. Repeat several times. The white material 
in the bottom is starch. 

2. Cut some potatoes in halves and study structure. Note the three 

areas. They are cortical, outer medullary, and inner medullary. 
The dark, irregular part (the inner medullary) is very poor in 
starch. Make outline drawings and label. 

3. Look up in the U. S. Department of Agriculture Yearbooks the 

five leading potato-producing nations of the world and the 
ten leading states in the United States. 

4. Visit some good potato cellar, storehouse, or a pit that is being 

filled. 

5. Secure a sackful of potatoes. Measure carefully in a good metal 

measure. In thin board or in heavy pasteboard make a hole 
2}^ inches in diameter and another 13^ inches. All potatoes 
that will not pass through the large hole put in one pile. These 
are Grade No. 1. In a second pile, place those tubers that go 
through the large hole but not through the small one. Those 
that pass through the small hole are culls. Keep these separate. 
The other potatoes are Grade No. 2. Now measure carefully and 
see if the total volume of the potatoes is equal to first measure- 
ment. If there is any difference, explain the reason for it. 

REFERENCES 
The Potato, Gilbert, Barrus and Dean. 
The Potato, Eraser. 



216 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

The Potato, Grubb and Guilford. 
Field Crops, Wilson and Warlmrton. 
Productive Farm Crops, Montgomery. 
Field Crop Production, Livingston. 
Principles of Agronomy, Harris and Stewart. 

Potatoes, Ontario Bulletin 239. 
Farmers' Bulletins: 

No. 295. Potatoes and Other Root Crops as Food. 

365. Farm Management in Northern Potato Growing Sec- 
tions. 
386. Potato Culture on Irrigated Farms in the West. 
417. The Potato as a Truck Crop. 
533. Good Seed Potatoes. 
544. Potato-tuber Diseases. 
557. The Potato Tuber Moth. 
753. Commercial Handling, Grading, and Marketing of 

Potatoes. 
847. Potato Storage and Storage Houses. 



CHAPTER XXIX 
ORCHARD FRUITS 

Not all farms are adapted to the commercial production 
of fruit. There are, however, very few farms in the moun- 
tain states which could not be made to produce an abund- 
ance of fruit to be used by the home. In some localities 
peaches and cherries might not be successfully grown on 
account of late spring frosts, but an ample supply of apples, 
pears and plums, and the small fruits could be raised for 
home use. In selecting a section of the farm for fruit trees 
the first important point to consider is the soil. 

Soil. Almost any good fertile soil which will grow fair 
crops of potatoes and vegetables can be made suitable for 
the apple, pear and plum, which adapt themselves nicely to 
a soil varying from the sandy loam to the clay loam. The 
cherry and peach thrive best on a rather light, well-drained 
soil. It is important, however, that this soil be deep, that 
is, not too closely underlaid with a gravel or clay hardpan 
and not susceptible to a high water table, at least within six 
feet of the surface. If there is not at least six feet of good 
soil, the fruit tree is bound to be short-lived and unsatis- 
factory. When a deep soil is selected and other conditions 
are favorable, the apple or pear tree will flourish and produce 
fruit during a period equal to the lifetime of an average 
person. Much importance is attached to the selection of 
a commercial orchard site free from frost conditions. But 
the home fruit plantation must necessarily be close to the 
buildings for convenience in the care of the trees and to get 
the best use of the crop. 

The land should be put hi good tillable condition, much 
the same as for the vegetable garden. 

217 



218 



. WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



Nursery Stock. In the purchase of nursery stock it is 
well to patronize a nearby nursery, since the business integ- 
rity of the firm and the quality of their trees may be better 
known. Oftentimes the earlier the order is placed, in the 

late winter or early spring, the 
better the stock received. One- 
year-old trees are preferable in 
practically all fruits, especially 
in the case of apples, peaches, 
and cherries, as trees of this age 
are less disturbed by transplant- 
ing and are more likely to 
survive this operation. They 
generally make a more rapid 
growth from the start than 
older trees. At the same time 
the fruit grower is able to prune 
and shape the head of the trees 
according to his own ideal much 
better by beginning with young 
nursery stock. 

Pruning the Young Tree. 
A fruit tree should be pruned 
systematically and periodically 
each year from the time it is 
planted until taken from the 
orchard. At the time of plant- 
ing cut the bruised and torn roots off to within six or 
seven inches of the trunk, making a good clean cut. A cut 
will heal more rapidly than a bruise. The top should be 
pruned as soon as the tree is planted to maintain balance 
between the top and the root system. If one-year-old 
''whips" are planted, they should be cut back thirty inches 
from the ground at planting. On the other hand, if two- 
year-old trees are used and the head of the tree has already 




Figure 80. — Well grown one-year- 
old apple trees. 



ORCHARD FRUITS 



219 




Figure 81. — Well-shaped Jonathan 
tree before its annual pruning. Top 
branches should be trimmed out 
slightly. 



been formed, from three to 
five main branches should be 
selected to make the frame- 
work of the tree. These 
should be distributed as 
equally as possible around 
the tree and at the same time 
arranged up and down a space 
of eight or ten inches along 
the trunk. If all the branches 
are started at the same 
place on the trunk, the tree 
will be likely to break down 
under heavy loads of fruit. 
The lowest branches should 
not be less than twenty inches 
from the ground to facilitate 

cultivation operations. At the same time, it is well to have 

a low-headed tree, thus shading the trunk to prevent sun 

scald and to make pruning, 

picking, thinning, and spraying 

more convenient. These main 

branches of the tree should be 

headed back to two or three 

buds at the time of planting; 

otherwise the tree may start to 

grow very slowly or even die 

on account of having too large 

a top in proportion to the roots. 

The first year after planting 

the tree will have six or eight 

branches from these original 

five, a part of which should 

be removed, leaving only about 

one shoot on each of the five ^^^"^oid'ip^ittTef betetru'ning^''" 




220 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



original limbs. If a one-year-old whip has been planted, 
these lateral branches will start from the main trunk. These 
should be cut back to within eighteen or twenty inches of 
the trunk to strengthen the young tree, making it more com- 
pact and stronger. A year or two of cutting back the main 
limbs of the tree, when it is first started, may save it from 




Figure 83. — Vegetables may be cultivated between rows of fruit trees for six or 
seven years after trees are planted. 



breaking down by heavy crops in later years, but should be 
discontinued in the case of apples, pears and cherries after 
the third year. 

Pruning the Mature Tree. The mature, bearing tree 
should receive its moderate annual pruning early in the 
spring. If it has been properly handled during its early 
years, the pruning operation will not be laborious or com- 
plicated. In removing branches the cut should be made 
close to the remaining limb without leaving any stub. Long 
stubs may never completely heal over but smooth cuts will 
heal readily. The work should be taken up systematically, 
first removing any lower limbs which interfere with culti- 
vation, then removing from the center all straight water- 
shoot growths which would soon fill the tree. If there are 



ORCHARD FRUITS 



221 



limbs which make bad crotches, cross one another, or rub 
together, one of them may be removed. In case the tree 
is growing too high and out of bounds it may be cut back to 
a side branch. In cutting back a tree under these condi- 
tions one should never simply cut back all the branches, 




Figure 84. 



-Alfalfa or clover may be grown in the bearing orchard if the soil is rich 
and there is an abundance of water. 



but should always make this cut to a lateral growth to which 
the strength of the tree will go rather than be forced to the 
upright branches. It is often desirable to do this cutting 
back in the summertime, as pruning at this time is less 
likely to stimulate an excessive wood growth. As noted 
above, pruning should be an annual process, as irregular 
severe pruning is conducive to excessive wood growth at 
the expense of fruit production. Detailed methods to be 
followed in pruning the several different fruit trees cannot 
be developed within the space of this text, but may be found 
by those interested in references 1, 2, 8 and 11. 

Thinning the Fruit. There is no other factor which is 
more important in the production of high quality fruit than 
thinning. It is the common practice of the average farmer 



222 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



to thin the sugar beets and various vegetable crops that 
those plants remaining may have more room and better nour- 
ishment and attain a more perfect growth. Many of the 
same farmers will, however, allow an apple tree to be greatly 
overburdened with the production of a large amount of 
inferior fruit. The exact amount of fruit to be removed will 





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Figure 85. — A spring-tooth cultivator is useful in working an orchard, especially a 

silt loam soil. 



have to be learned by experience. If actually one half of 
the fruit is thinned from the tree, the remaining half will 
often yield as much bulk as the entire crop would have 
yielded, besides being greatly superior fruit. The best time 
to thin the fruit is about the first week in July, immediately 
after the so-called June drop. 

Cultivation. Good cultural conditions are as necessary 
in the orchard as in the garden. Vegetable crops may be 
grown between the trees for the first six or eight years 
after planting the orchard, until the soil becomes too shaded 
for the intercrops. 

The tools to be used in cultivating depend upon the 
nature of the soil. A spike-tooth harrow might be a very 



ORCHARD FRUITS 



223 



satisfactory implement for a sandy loam, but an imple- 
ment designed to cut and break up the clods, such as the 
Acme harrow, would be more satisfactory on a heavy soil. 
Irrigation water should be used judiciously and only when 
the trees need it. No hard and fast rules can be set down 
for the application of water. The grower will learn to 
know when the trees are in need of more moisture. Each 




Figure 86. — The proper system of irrigation in a western orchard. 

irrigation should wet the soil to a depth of six or eight feet, 
and the trees should never be allowed to suffer for want of 
water. It is well to remember, however, that injury can 
be caused by too much water as well as by too little. Trees 
heavily laden with fruit require much more water than 
young growing trees, although the latter should be given 
several irrigations each year to keep them vigorous. 

Picking and Storing. Great care should be exercised in 
picking all fruit crops and especially fruit destined for stor- 
age. All fruit should be picked at the proper time in the 
most careful manner and handled judiciously after being 
picked. Apples for immediate use should remain on the 
tree until thoroughly ripe. Apples for winter consumption 



224 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 




should be picked shortly before they have reached the stage 
of complete ripeness. This point has been reached when 
the seeds are partially or wholly brown, when the fruit has 
taken on its characteristic flavor and has become well- 
colored, at which time 
the apple will separate 
from the twig with 
comparative readiness. 
Since most pears 
ripen best out of the 
sunlight and are sub- 
ject to core rot if al- 
lowed to remain on the 
tree too long, it is ad- 
visable to pick them 
early and allow them 
to ripen in storage. 
Pears picked green, 
however, will wilt and 
become worthless. The proper time to pick a pear is when 
it has reached its maximum size, become mottled, is yellow 
at the base, and separates readily from the spur. Several 
pickings are required to get the best results. 

Peaches, for home use, are allowed to remain upon the 
tree until thoroughly ripe. 

Fruit must be handled carefully to keep it free from 
bruises of any kind. A clean solid apple will keep in storage 
much longer than a bruised one. With a common cellar 
for storage, apples may be kept and enjoyed in the average 
farm family from ten to twelve months, while pears may be 
held until Christmas. Good ventilation and a temperature 
of 32 degrees F. is most favorable to apple and pear storage. 
Varieties of Fruit. There are many varieties of fruit in 
existence with a wide range of adaptability. Among those 
best suited to the semi-arid states are; 



Figure S7. — A three-year-old apple tree. The 
fruit is borne on the two-year-old wood. 



ORCHARD FRUITS 225 



EARLY APPLES 



Red Asirachan. This is one of the leading summer apples, medium 
size, greenish yellow, striped and blushed with dark red. The tree is 
vigorous, early and an abundant bearer. Season, late in July and 
August. It is very hardy and should withstand the climatic condi- 
tions in countries of high altitude. 

Yellow Transparent. This variety is next in importance to the 
Red Astrachan, of medium size, bright yellow, and of good quality for 
both dessert and culinary purposes. The tree is a vigorous, upright 
grower, a good early bearer, and withstands severe climates. Season, 
late in July and early August. 

Wealthy. Medium to large, hght yellow apple, splashed and 
mottled with dark red, very attractive. The tree is vigorous, spread- 
ing, very productive, and capable of withstanding climatic conditions 
in the counties of high altitude. Season, September to November 
in low altitude, and October to January in high altitudes. 

Maiden's Blush. Medium-size yellow apple blushed with red, 
very popular for fall use. The quality is excellent for dessert purposes, 
cooking, or evaporation. Season, September to October. The tree 
is vigorous and productive. 

WINTER APPLES 

Mcintosh. Medium-size, bright deep red color, very attractive 
in appearance, flesh very tender, perfumed and delicious. This is one 
of the very best dessert varieties for home use and local markets from 
September to December 1st. The tree is vigorous, very hardy and a 
reliable cropper. 

Jonathan. Medium size bright red apple, of very good quality 
for dessert and culinary purposes. Season from November to January. 
This is one of the very best commercial apples. 

Winesap. Medium to small, bright red apple, of firm flesh, crisp, 
and of slightly subacid flavor. The tree is medium in size and vigor- 
ous. The size of the fruit is much benefited by thinning. Season, 
December to April, a good-keeping apple. 

R. I. Greening. Large green apple of excellent quahty. The 
tree is vigorous, spreading and a medium to heavy bearer. This variety 
is most excellent for culinary purposes and regarded by some as good 
for dessert. Season, December to March. 

Arkansas. (Mammoth Black Twig.) A large to medium green- 
ish apple overlaid with dark red, becommg rich garnet on the exposed 
side. It usually overgrows, and is nonproductive on heavy soils. It 

15— 



226 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

is much more satisfiK'lory on the sandy loams and even here it is some- 
times only a medium producer. The flavor is subacid of good quality. 
Season, December to April. 

PEARS 

Bartlett. One of the very best pears for home use but very sus- 
ceptible to blight. A large clear yellow pear with reddish blush and of 
fine quality. Season, about the 20th of August in Box Elder County, 
Utah. 

Flemish. Often known as Flemish Beauty: A large yellow pear 
nearly covered with a russet red blush. The flesh is a little coarse, but 
juicy, sweet, rich and highly flavored. Season, September. 

Lawrence. Medium size, fruit light yellow with many small dots 
and of good quality. Season, about September 15th, but will keep in 
common storage until December. 

Winter Nelis. Yellowish green pear, much russeted, fine grain, 
sweet and of good quality. It can be picked just before frost and will 
keep until December. 

Anjou. A large, short-stemmed, greenish yellow pear, sprinkled 
with russet and a dull red blush. It has fine juicy flesh and is of good 
quality. Season, about September 15th, but may keep in common 
storage until December 1st. It is likely to be a scant bearer. 

PEACHES 

Alexander. A medium to small yellowish white peach, covered 
with deep red blush on the sunny side. Its flesh is white, firm, juicy, 
and of good quality, with stone nearly free. It is one of the best early 
varieties for local trade and home use. 

Early Crawford. A large bright yellow peach with a red cheek. 
Often the yellow surface is sprinkled with red splashes. Its flesh is 
yellow, juicy, sweet and of very good quality, with a free stone. It is 
widely grown in some sections as a commercial peach. Season, early 
to medium. 

Triumph. A large yellow peach, overlaid with red. The flesh is 
deep yellow, juicy, and of good quality. Semicling. Medium sea- 
son. It is one of the best early yellow flesh varieties. 

Early Elder ta. A large yeUow peach with a crimson blush. The 
flesh is yellow, of good quahty and has a free stone. The tree is vigor- 
ous and very productive. Season, late summer, a week or ten days 
earher than Elberta; but it has a very good keeping quality. 



ORCHARD FRUITS 227 

Elberfa. The most widely known commercial peach. It has 
large round yellow fruit with a dark red blush on the sunny side. The 
flesh is pale yellow, tender, juicy, and of medium quality. It is a good 
shipping peach. Season, medium to late. The trees are strong, 
vigorous, and heavy bearers. This variety is inclined to thin itself. 

Orange Cling. A large orange yellow peach with red cheek, firm 
juicy flesh, of good quality, and with a cling stone. Season, about 
ten days later than the Elberta. 

SWEET CHERRIES 

Napoleon. (Royal Ann.) Large, heart-shaped, yellow cherry with 
bright red blush, and with a very firm, sweet juicy flesh. It is one of 
the very best varieties. Season, last of June to first of July. 

Black Tartarian. Medium to large black cherry, with dark flesh, 
and of flne, mild, sweet flavor. Season, middle of June. 

Bing. One of the newer dark red, nearly black, sweet cherries, 
very large and of excellent flavor. It promises to be one of the leading 
market varieties. Season, a little later than the Black Tartarian. 

Lambert. It is very similar tc, and seems to be as meritorious as, 
the Bing. 

Winsor. A very dark red cherry of firm flesh and good quality. 
Season, about the same as the Napoleon. 

SOUR CHERRIES 

Montmorency. One of the leading sour cherries, medium in size, 
light red, but less hardy than many of the smaller kinds. It makes a 
good appearance when canned. 

Knudson. A very hardy, mild sour cherry, bright scarlet in color 
and having medium to large fruit. It is one of the most attractive 
pie and canning cherries in existence. It is a very early bearer, and 
ripens its fruit over a long period. 

PLUMS 

Abundance. A yellowish fruit nearly overlaid with bright red, 
of yellow flesh and good quality. Season, early. This Japanese 
variety blooms early and is, therefore, hable to frost injury in un- 
protected sections, 

Bradshaw. A dark purplish red plum, with medium to large 
fruit. Its flesh is greenish yellow, sweet, and of good quality. The 
stone is nearly free. Season, middle of August. 



228 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

Italian Prune. One of the most widely grown and most popular 
varieties of medium size, dark purple, with a greenish yellow flesh, 
juicy, sweet, and of good quality. It has a free stone. Season, late 
August to September. It is extensively grown for dried prunes, as well 
as for market purposes. 

Giant (Giant Prune). A very large dark crimson fruit, with 
yellowish flesh of good quality. It is considerably grown for market 
purposes. 

Damson. A small purplish plum, with a melting, juicy flesh of 
subacid flavor. It has a free stone. Season, medium. It is an ex- 
ceptionally heavy producer and is largely used for preserving. 

Golden Drop (Silver Prune). One of the largest and best quality 
yellow plums, especially adapted to the home fruit garden in the semi- 
arid states. Season, late. 

De Soto. A medium-size oval plum, orange yellow, mostly over- 
laid with crimson, and of very good quality. Season, medium. It is 
a hardier variety than any of the above and valued for preserving. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Discuss favorable and unfavorable soil conditions for fruit trees. 

2. At what age should nursery trees be purchased? Why? 

3. Discuss the pruning of the young tree to shape the framework 

branches. 

4. Discuss the pruning of a mature fruit tree. 

5. Why is fruit thinned, and how? 

6. Discuss the cultivation and irrigation of fruit trees. 

7. How can one judge the proper season to pick apples, ])ears and 

peaches? 

8. Name and describe briefly three varieties of each of the following: 

apples, pears, cherries, plums. 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. Grafting: Apples are sometimes propagated by means of graft- 
ing a twig, called the cion, to a root of a tree, called the stock, 
which is one year old. This is because a twig will always pro- 
duce the same kind of a})ples as the tree from which the twig is 
cut; whereas an apple seed usuall>' producos a tree which bears 
some other kind of apples. 
For practice in grafting it is wise to use only the twigs bearing 
good, jjlump buds. Cut two pieces of twigs abo\it six inches 
long. Cut off the end of each piece with a long slanting cut, 



ORCHARD FRUITS 



229 




the surface of the cut being about an inch 
long. Practice until the cut can be made 
with one stroke of the knife, thus securing 
a smooth surface. Now, starting near the 
tip of slant, split the twig down as far as 
the other end of the slanting cut. Repeat 
with another twig of about the same size 
and fit the two cut ends into each other. 
Fit them in such a way that the line 
between the wood and the bark on each 
piece touches the same line on the other 
piece. Wind the splice tightly with string 
and the graft is finished. If the lower piece 
were a root, the two pieces would unite and 
could be planted to grow into a tree. 
2. Budding: Apples are also often propagated 
by budding. A piece of bark bearing a bud 
is inserted under the bark about four inches 
above the ground on a two-year-old tree 
grown from a seed. The bud grows and 
the top of the old tree is cut off, the growth 
from the bud becoming the new top. 
If the work is done in the late spring, the buds 
may be inserted, for practice, in branches 
about an inch in thickness. If done in the fall, the budding may 
be practiced on willow branches an inch thick which have been 
boiled or steamed to make the bark slip. 
Select apple shoots bear- 
ing dormant buds. 
Starting an eighth of an 
inch above the bud and 
cutting the same dis- 
tance below, cut off a 
piece of bark with the 
bud in the middle. On 
the apple branch or 
willow stick, which is 
called the stock, make 
an inch-long cut length- 
wise of the branch. At 

one end of this cut make Figure 89 —A, cutting the bud; B, bud partly 
„ ^1 . _ _ , . . 1 ,1, inserted under bark; C, bud inserted and 

a short cross cut; both tied. 



Figure 88— Illustration 
of whip-grafting 
showing: A, the 
method of making 
the cut; B, the stock 
and cion spliced to- 
gether; and C, the 
splice wrapped with 
waxed string. 




230 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



cuts need go only through the bark. Lift the corners of the 

bark with the point of the knife and then thrust the bud under 

the bark in such a way that the bud faces out through the 

vertical cut. Wind the branch tightly with string to press the 

bud against the branch. 
If the work is rightly done on a growing tree in the spring, the 

bud will unite with the stock in about two weeks. The string 

may then be cut off and the bud will soon begin to grow., 
3. Fruit Bud Studies: Fruit trees 

bear two kinds of buds: (1) 

leaf buds, or those which open 

out and make leaves and later 

develop into branches; and 

(2) fruit buds which develop 

into flowers and later into 

fruit. There is a difference in 

appearance between leaf buds 

and fruit buds, especially in 

the apple. The fruit bud is 

large and plump, whereas the 

leaf bud is smaller, narrower, 

and more pointed. 
In the spring of the year, bring 

in branches of different kinds 

of fruit trees and set them in 

water. Draw parts of the 

branches to show different 

kinds of buds and label them. 

In general, the different fruits 

bear buds as follows: 

(a) Apples — fruit buds are ter- 
minal on short twigs called spurs. The fruit buds are some- 
times terminal on wood which was formed last summer. Pear 
fruit buds are like those of apples. 

(b) Plums— fruit buds are lateral on spurs and the terminal 
bud is a leaf bud. The Ijuds are long and more pointed than 
apple buds. 

(c) Chen-ies—fruit buds are lateral on short spurs and are usually 
in a cluster near the tip of the spur. Fruit buds may also be 
lateral on long shoots grown last summer. 




Figure 90. — Twigs of: A, cherry; B, 
plum; C, apple; D, peach, show- 
ing: F, fruit buds, and L, leaf- 
buds. Numerals 1, 2, and 3 show 
age of wood in years; O indicates 
divison between the different ages 
of wood. 



ORCHARD FRUITS 



231 



(d) Peaclies — Ijear their buds in groups of three. The fruit 
bud is the small central bud on wood grown last summer. 
The two outside buds are leaf buds. 
Leave the branches in water for a few weeks until the buds have 
opened and the flowers bloomed, then see if you have labeled 
the buds in your drawings correctly. 
When fruit trees are in bloom in the spring study the buds out 
of doors, noting just where the buds which produced flowers 

and those which produced 
only leaves and branches 
were situated on last year's 
wood. Were the buds lateral 
or terminal? Were they on 
short spurs or on long shoots 
of wood? 
4, Cutting off a Branch: One of 
the first principles to be 
learned in pruning fruit is 
the proper method of cut- 
ting off a branch. When a 
branch is removed, there is 
left a tender cut surface 
open to attack of various 
diseases which may enter 
the tree at that point and 
eventually kill it. To pre- 
vent this result, the cut 
should be made in such a 
way that the wound will heal rapidly. This exercise demon- 
strates the proper method of making the cut. 
The tools necessary are either a pair of pruning shears or a saw 
and a sharp knife. The work may be done on any kind of a 
tree. In winter, choose a branched limb about one half or 
three fourths of an inch thick. Cut off the branch about one 
inch away from the Hmb, leaving a stub (as show^ in A, Figure 
91). If the cut is made with the saw, the surface will be 
rough and should be smoothed with the knife. Now choose 
another branched limb of the same diameter and cut off the 
branch close up to the limb, leaving a smooth surface and no 
projecting stub (as shown in B, Figure 91). Watch develop- 
ments in the heaUng of the two cuts. Explain. From which 




Figure 91. — Longitudinal section of 
branches showing: A, branch cut 
off leaving a long stub which will 
not heal_ over; B, properly mace 
cut healing over from above; C, 
properly made cut healed over. 



232 WEf^TERN AGRICULTURE 

side of tli(^ wound docs healijig take \ih\w. most rapidly? (C, 
Figures 1)1, shows a close cut wound which has healed com- 
pletely.) 
5. In cas(>. sonielnxly is available who is familiar with pruning, the 
class may be taken to an orchard and taught how to prune 
various kinds of trees. This exercise, however, requires con- 
siderable knowledge of pruning. 

REFERENCES 

1. Pruning Book, Bailey. 

2. Fruit Growing in Arid Regions, Paddock and Whipple. 

3. Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture, Bailey. 

4. American Apple Orchard, Waugh. 

5. Evolution of Our Native Fruits, Bailey. 

6. Popular Fruit Growing, Green. 

7. Journal of Royal Horticultural Society, About 40 Vol. 

8. Productive Orcharding, Sears. 

9. Fruit Harvesting, Storing and Marketing, Waugh. 

10. Plums and Plum Culture, Waugh. 

11. Principles of Fruit Growing, Bailey. 

12. Farm and Garden Rule Book, Bailey. 

13. Farmers' Bulletins: 

No. 113. The Apple and How to Grow It. 
181. Pruning. 

291. Evaporation of Apples. 
404. Irrigation of Orchards. 
426. Canning Peaches on the Farm. 
440. Spraying Peaches for Control of Brown Rot, 

Scab, and Curculio. 
482. The Pear and How to Grow It. 

491. The Profitable Management of a Small Apple 
Orchard on the General Farm. 

492. The More Important Insects and Fungous Ene- 
mies of the Fruit and Foliage of Apples. 

632. Growing Peaches. 

633. Growing Peaches: Varieties and Classification. 
670. Field Mice as Farm and Orchard Pests. 

882. Irrigation of Orchards. 



CHAPTER XXX 

SMALL FRUITS 

BUSH FRUIT CULTURE 

The bush fruits, composed of rasp})erries, blackberries, 
currants, gooseberries, and dewberries, reciuire essentially 
the same attention. 

SoiL Well-drained, sandy loams give the best results. 
The dewberry, however, thrives best on a gravelly loam. 
If the soil is too rich, the plant produces vine at the expense 
of fruit. Sod land should be avoided. Thorough soil prep- 
aration is imperative. Land which has been thoroughly 
cultivated for one or two seasons previous to planting is to 
be preferred. 

Fertilizers. Bush fruits do not require heavy fertilizing. 
Land which fails to give satisfactory returns in some of the 
vegetable crops will often give good yields of bush fruits 
without the addition of fertilizers of any kind. Fertilizing 
should not be neglected entirely. A moderate application 
of stable manure gives good results especially with currants, 
gooseberries, and raspberries. Upon fertile soils it must be 
used cautiously, as otherwise it may cause excessive wood 
growth, lack of hardiness, and diminished fruitfulness. 
Apply in fall or early winter, that it may become available 
during the early part of the growing season. 

Care of Young Plants. It will seldom be conveuient to 
set out the plants immediately upon their arrival from the 
nursery. They should, however, be unpacked as soon as 
received. The ])unches should be loosened up enough to 
bring all the roots in contact with the earth when heeled in. 
The north side of a building or a cool cellar should be used as 

233 



234 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



a place in which to heel them. Open a shallow trench with 
one side somewhat slanting, lay the plants against this side, 
and cover the roots with fine damp soil, packing it firmly 
about them. If heeled in a cellar, damp sawdust may be 

used to cover the roots. 
Setting the Plants. 
The plants should be 
set out very early in 
the spring; otherwise 
the first season's 
growth will be seri- 
ously checked. Spring 
planting is preferable 
to fall planting in the 
semi -arid West. The 
common practice is 
to plant bush fruits in 
rows furrowed out six 
to eight feet apart, 
with the plants two to 
six feet apart in the 
rows, depending upon 
whether the planting 
is done in solid rows or in hills. The plants are easily set 
in mellow ground by working the soil about the roots, firming 
it with the feet. The furrow between the plants may be 
filled in by subsequent cultivation. The plants should be 
carried in a pail of water or wrapped in wet burlap. Never 
distribute the plants more than a few feet ahead of the 
planter. A very few moments of exposure in the sun or 
wind will lessen the vitality of the plants or even kill them. 
Unless the weather is cool and rainy, the plants should be 
irrigated as soon as set. This first irrigation is quite essen- 
tial even though the soil is already damp, for water firms the 
loose soil around the roots. 




Figure 92. — Houghton, one of 
gooseberries. 



the standard 



SMALL FRUITS 



235 



Soil Management. Cultivation during the first season 
will be the same as for any hoetl croi). Frequent stirring of 
the soil to destroy weeds, and frequent irrigation, followed 
by cultivation, are recommended as good practice through- 
out the first season. Each succeeding spring tillage should 
begin early, using any implement which will thoroughly 

loosen the soil and leave 
it level. The soil near 
the plants should be 
loosened with a hoe or 
rake, so that the entire 
surface may be mellow 
and in good tilth. This 
cultivation should be 
done early in the spring 
before the ground be- 
comes hard and weeds 
are established. 

Pruning. The bram- 
bles (raspberries, black- 
berries, dewberries, etc.) bear their fruit on one-year-old 
canes. As soon as the fruiting season is past these canes 
should be cut out and burned, thus making room for the new 
growth and destroying insects and diseases. In common prac- 
tice, however, the pruning is neglected until the following 
spring, when the old dead canes are taken out and the tips of 
the young canes cut back to varying extents, depending on 
the variety. 

Currants and gooseberries bear their best and most fruit 
on the branches which are from one to three years old. New 
branches are produced each year and these should replace the 
old branches which bear only inferior fruit in small quantities. 
Hence, in pruning, which should be done in the early spring, 
all branches are cut out except a few each of the one, two, 
and three-year-old branches. In exceptional cases good results 




Figure 93. — White Imperial currant. 



236 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

may ulso bo obtiiiiietl l)y leaving yoiiio branches which are 
four and five years old. 'J'he tii)s of the bi'anches may be 
cut back in some cases for various reasons, ]:>ut this is usually 
not necessary. 

Propagation. The methods of propagation are by divi- 
sion of the parent plant, suckers, mounding or cuttings, and 
tip layering, according to the habits of the species. 

Picking the Fruit. Never pick the fruit when it is wet, 
unless it is positively necessary in showery weather. When 
picked in this condition the fruit is suitable only for pre- 
serving or immediate consumption. Damp fruit quickly 
becomes moldy in transit or storage. 

STRAWBERRY CULTURE 

Soil. A well-drained, rich sandy or gravelly loam will 
give good results in the production of strawberries. Al- 
though this crop requires considerable water during the rip- 
ening season of the fruit, it will not pay well on a poorly 
drained soil. In general, strawberries require soil conditions 
desirable for a vegetable garden. 

Liberal applications of stable manure should be part of 
the yearly treatment of the strawberry patch. It can be 
applied in the late fall or winter, thus serving as mulch as 
well as fertihzer. If there is a light snowfall, this mulch will 
often reduce the hkelihood of the winter killing where the 
climate is severe, and it may also prevent the plants from 
blossoming until after late spring frosts. 

Propagation and Culture. In starting a new bed the 
plants should be set out as early as possible in the spring, in 
order that they may be well established before hot weather. 

Strawberries do not come true from seed; therefore varieties 
are propagated vegetatively by means of runners. In setting 
out a new patch only young plants which have never borne 
fruit should be used. Three years is about the average life 
of a commercial strawberry patch, some growers harvesting 
only two crops. The land is then used for some hoed crop for 



SMALL FRUITS 237 

two years before replanting to strawberries. Before planting, 
the roots should be pruned back to about five inches. They 
will then branch, producing a thick, matted root system. 

If the plants are set deeper than they were in the old bed, 
the crowns become covered with soil, thus killing the plant. 
If set less deeply, the roots dry out just below the crown, 
causing dwarfed growth or the death of many plants. 

The plants do best when set from fifteen to twenty-four 
inches apart in rows from three to four feet distant, depend- 
ing somewhat on the varieties used. 

Pollination and Varieties. In choosing varieties, atten- 
tion must be given to polhnation. Some varieties produce 
only imperfect flowers, that is, flowers in which pistils are 
present but no stamens. These are known as pistillate vari- 
eties. This type will not produce fruit when planted alone, 
but must be grown in the vicinity of pollen-producing vari- 
eties known as staminate varieties. When a pistillate vari- 
ety is planted it should be alternated about every third or 
fourth row with one or two rows of a staminate variety which 
blossoms at the same time. All the following varieties have 
perfect flowers and are among the most popular sorts grown 
in the western states: Jucunda (early) ; Dunlap (early to mid- 
season); Marshall (midseason); Chesapeake (midseason to 
late); Klondike (late). 

Tillage. Frequent shallow cultivation the first season is 
essential to the establishment of a first-class strawberry bed, 
in fact, the area should be treated in a manner similar to a 
hoed garden crop. All blossoms should be picked off the 
young plants the first year that they may not become dwarfed 
by premature fruit bearing. 

Irrigation. The plants should make a continuous healthy 
growth and never suffer for want of moisture. The bearing 
strawberry bed needs frequent and liberal irrigation during 
the fruiting period. Lack of ample moisture' will result in 
undersized, inferior berries. 



238 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

Picking. The berries should be picked carefully without 
bruising. Fruit for market should be picked every day, 
since it will remain firm and transportable only a short time. 
For near-by markets the berries may be fully ripe when 
picked, but must be firm. For distant markets the fruit 
should be picked when about three quarters to seven eighths 
red. Fruit in this condition is full size, and will ripen and 
color in transit, reaching the market firm and presentable. 

Berries should not be picked when wet. Wet berries 
decay quickly and will not stand transportation. Remove 
the berries to a shady place or packinghouse as soon as pos- 
sible after picldng. 

Marketing. Strawberries are usually marketed in quart 
cups or baskets. Some states have laws prohibiting the sale 
of strawberries in any other containers. These quart baskets 
are usually shipped in crates holding from twelve to thirty-six 
baskets, depending on the market demands. 

If the fruit be graded, each crate presents a uniform ap- 
pearance throughout as regards color, size, and ripeness of 
the fruit. To accomplish this result only one variety should 
be packed in a crate. When a dark red variety and a light 
red one of equal merit are packed together, the light berries 
usually appear to a disadvantage, whereas they would make 
a very creditable showing by themselves. Some of the fancy 
markets prefer to have the top layer of berries in each cup 
''faced." They should be packed honestly and the fruit on 
top should be a fair sample of the contents of the basket. 

GRAPE CULTURE 

Even though grape culture is not an extensive commercial 
enterprise in the western plain and intermountain states, 
nevertheless grapes could be produced for home use on many 
of the farms throughout this territory. 

A very severe winter climate will kill grapes and very late 
spring frosts will reduce the crop; whereas in a short growing 



SMALL FRUITS 



239 



season the crop may be destroyed by early fall frosts. Grapes, 
however, can be produced in almost any climate which is 
favorable to the growth of cherries or peaches. There are 
many varieties of both the European and American grape, 

which make a group with a 
wide range of adaptation. 

Varieties. The following 
varieties are among the most 
popular hardy American 
grapes : Campbell Early (early) ; 
Concord (midseason) ; Niagara 
(midseason) ; Catawba (late). 

The European grapes 
should be planted only in the 
semi-arid West, and where there 
is a long growing season, as in 
the valleys contingent to the 
Great Salt Lake; Grand Val- 
ley, Colorado; Boise Valley, 
Idaho ; at a maximum altitude 
of about 4,500 feet; together 
with the lower valleys of southern Utah, southern Colorado, 
Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, and California. 

The European varieties which are adapted to the above 
region are: Black Prince (early); Sultanina (early); Alex- 
andria (midseason); Ferrara (midseason); Cornichon (late). 
The American varieties are also suited to home use in this 
latter region. 

For a detailed description of grape culture and pruning, 
see references 5, 6 and 7 at the end of this chapter. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is meant by bush fruits? 

2. How does the dewberry differ in soil requirements from the other 

bush fruits? 

3. How should bush fruits be fertihzed? 

4. What is meant by "heeling in" plants and how is it done? 




Figure 94. — Concord grapes. 



240 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

5. Discuss the season and method of setting out bush fruits. 

6. When and how are blackberries and raspberries pruned? 

7. Discuss the pollination of strawberries, and name four perfect 

flowered varieties. 

8. Discuss the picking of small fruits, and their subsequent handling. 

9. What are the three principal climatic limitations to grape culture 

in the mountain and western plain states? 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. Pruning Brambles: In order to produce good strong fruiting 

wood and still not have raspberry bushes too tall or too long, it 
is necessary to prune the new canes before they fruit. 

Blackberries and black raspberries are pruned in spring of the 
first year. When the young canes are 1^ to 2 feet high the 
tips are pinched or cut off and the cane sends out strong stocky 
branches which bear good fruit. In the spring of the second 
year these branches are cut part way back in order to pre- 
vent too much fruit. 

Red raspberries are not pinched the first year, but are allowed 
to grow the first year. In the spring of the second year, these 
one-year-old canes are cut back to three feet in length. 

In the winter go into a bramble patch which has not been pruned 
and notice the two different kinds of canes. What external 
differences do you see? Cut some canes in two and note 
internal differences. Which should be removed entirely? 
Why? Remove all the dead canes, and enough of the new 
canes to leave only three to five in each hill. If the new canes 
are branched, trim back the branches. 

In the spring, pinch back the new canes of blackberries or black 
raspberries when they are from 13^ to 2 feet high and watch 
the results. Let some grow to four feet tall and then cut them 
back to 13^ to 2 feet long. Compare the results of the two 
treatments through the rest of the Hfe of those particular canes. 

2. Pruning Currants and Gooseberries: Although the pruning of these 

fruits is probably neglected more than that of any other, they 
nevertheless respond readily to pruning. 

The best fruit is borne on one-year-old canes and on the one-year- 
old spurs of canes two and three years old. After a cane 
becomes four years old, its fruit becomes scarce and small; 
. therefore, all canes four years old or older should be removed. 

In the winter go into a currant or gooseberry patch which has not 
yet been pruned. Count the age of the various canes and you 



SMALL FRUITS 241 

will find some canes one, two, three, and four years old or older. 

Cut off at the ground all those which are four years old and 

older, and cut off all but five or six of the one-year-old canes. 

How do the one-year-old canes differ from older canes? 
This treatment will thin out all dead, weak, and superfluous wood, 

thereby yielding a better crop. 
Planting Strawberries: Secure from a reliable company or grower 
25 or 50 strawberry plants to be delivered in the early spring. 
Be sure to select a variety which is bi-sexual, that is, one which 
produces both pollen and pistils. Why? As soon as the plants 
arrive, dig a shallow trench, open the package of plants, and 
spread the plants out in the trench covering the roots firmly 
with soil. Do not cover the crowns of plants. Keep the plants 
well watered. 
When the ground has been prepared, set the plants in rows three 
feet apart setting the plants fifteen inches apart in the row. 
Dig a shallow hole and set a plant into it, taking care to spread 
the roots out evenly; then cover with dirt and press down 
firmly all around the plant. The plant should be set at such 
a depth that the crown is just at the surface of the ground 
and neither above nor below it. If the soil is dry, each plant 
must be well watered. 
Strawberry plants should not be allowed to set fruit the first 
summer. It is necessary to entirely remove all blossom stalks 
as fast as blossoms appear during the first summer. 
If the hill system is used, it is necessary to cut off aU the run- 
ners from the plants as fast as they appear. 

REFERENCES 

1. Bush Fruits, Revised Edition, Card. 

2. Commercial Gardening, Vol. Ill, Weathers. 

3. Encyclopedia of Practical Horticulture, Lowther 

4. Popular Fruit Growing, Green. 

5. Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture, Bailey 

6. The Grapes of New York, Hedrick. 

7. Strawberry Growing, Fletcher. 

8. Farmers' Bulletins: 

No. 154. The Home Fruit Garden, Preparation and Care. 

198. Strawberries, 

213. Raspberries. 

471. Grape Propagation, Pruning, and Training 



CHAPTER XXXI 
THE VEGETABLE GARDEN* 

The vegetable garden should be a valuable asset of every 
farm home and can well be worked in at the rear of many 
town lots. All tillage should be done, where space will allow, 
with horse tools. The rows of vegetables, therefore, should 
be long and continuous. If it is not desirable, however, 
to grow one full row of any vegetable, the row may be made 
up of several crops, which demand similar cultural methods, 
as turnips, radishes, and beets, which would all thrive under 
the same conditions. It is essential that the soil be rich and 
very thoroughly pulverized, and very careful, frequent, and 
painstaking cultivation is necessary. In the semi-arid regions 
this must be supplemented by irrigation every week or ten 
days to produce a rapid succulent growth which is so 
essential to high quality in most vegetable crops. 

The perennial plants, such as rhubarb, asparagus, and 
herbs should be arranged on one side of the vegetable garden 
in order not to interfere with the annual plowing. The above 
hardy vegetables should be in rows three to four feet apart to 
permit horse cultivation, with the plants about two feet apart 
in the rows. It is well to practice some system of rotation 
with the annual vegetables, growing them in different parts 
of the area in succeeding years. If radish or cabbage mag- 
gots or other insect pests become thoroughly established, 
omit for a year or more the vegetables on which they live. 

It is not necessary that the crops should be confined to 
vegetables. Oftentimes a sprinkling of flowers here and there 
brightens up the area and makes it more attractive than 
when planted entirely to the culinary crops. 

*The culture of potatoes is omitted from this chapter, as this crop is treated in 
detail, pp. 208. 

242 



THE VEGETABLE GARDEN 243 

Size. The home vegetable garden for a family of five or 
six persons would require, exclusive of potatoes, a space of 
about 100 by 150 feet. If several plantings of the respective 
vegetables are made throughout the season, a family can be 
provided with a wide variety of vegetables from early spring 
to late autumn. 

Hardy Vegetables. Vegetables that are hardy, with- 
standing a light frost, may be planted in the very early spring, 
as soon as the apricot trees are in blossom. Beginning at one 
side of the garden the lows may be made the short way, 
having each row 100 feet long and two and one half to three 
feet apart to allow for horse cultivation. Sowings of the fol- 
lowing may be made as the ground is in condition to work: 
50 feet each of parsnips and salsify; 100 feet of onions; 50 feet 
of early beets ; 50 feet of lettuce, with which radish seed may 
be sown to break the soil and to be harvested before the let- 
tuce needs the room; 100 feet of early cauliflower; 100 feet of 
early cabbage plants which should have been started in a 
cold frame or may be purchased from a greenhouse; 400 feet 
of peas, — early, medium and late varieties. 

Tender Vegetables. After the soil has become thoroughly 
warm and the normal danger of frost is past, the tender vege- 
tables may be planted. After the apple trees have blossomed 
and dropped their petals this group of vegetables may usually 
be planted with safety. The following planting should supply 
the above family: 100 feet each of early, medium and late 
string beans. Sweet corn may be planted in about 5 rows, 
3 feet apart, and about 2^ feet between the hills in the row, 
— early, medium, and late varieties. Twelve hills of Hub- 
bard squash in rows 6 feet apart, with the hills alternating 
8 feet apart in the row; 6 hills of early squash (such as the 
Boston Marrow), 6 by 6 feet; 12 hills of cucumbers, 6 by 6 feet; 
20 hills of muskmelons, two or three different varieties, 6 
by 6 feet; 20 egg plants, 2 feet apart in the row; and 100 feet 
of tomato plants. Late cabbage, cauliflower, celery, and 



244 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

Brussels sprouts may occupy the space made vacant by the 
removal of the early crops, such as lettuce, radishes, early 
peas, and string beans. On tlie border of a garden, an as- 
paragus bed 25 feet long and 6 feet wide will furnish enough 
for family use. Bordering this, about a dozen clumps of 
rhubarb set 3 feet apart each way should be regarded as part 
of the permanent garden. Cold frames and hotbeds may be 
set along the border ne:xt to these perennial plants. Next to 
the hotbed sage, mint, hyssop, and parsley may be planted. 

Classes of Vegetables. It will greatly aid the beginner 
in vegetable culture if he recognizes certain groups or classes 
and is familiar with their requirements for successful growth. 

Root Crops. Beets, carrots, parsnips, radishes, salsify, 
turnips, rutabagas, require a cool season in a deep rich soil. 
They are grown in drills and are usually not transplanted. 
They may be used, though, as a main-season or as a secondary 
crop. They are hardy and require no special skill in grow- 
ing them. Loose, deep soil, free from clods, is required to 
grow straight, well-developed roots. Land should be per- 
fectly drained, not only to remove superfluous moisture, but 
to provide deep, friable soil. A sandy loam is generally 
desirable, provided the soil is not hkely to become too hot 
in the summer time. These crops, with the exception of the 
radish, can be kept in an ordinary cellar throughout the win- 
ter and well into the spring by packing them in barrels or 
boxes in damp sand, allowing each root to come wholly or 
partially in contact with the sand. 

Bulb Crops. The bulb crops including onion, leek, garlic, 
and chive, are very hardy. They are cool weather plants, 
demanding unusually careful preparation of the surface soil 
at time of seeding. A rich friable soil with an abundance of 
quickly available plant food is essential. These crops may be 
planted in the spring as early as the ground is workable. 
The seeds are sown directly where the plants are to stand, in 
rows from 11 to 13 inches apart for hand cultivation, and 



THE VEGETABLE GARDEN 245 

23^ to 3 feet apart for horse cultivation. For early onions, 
however, there has arisen within the last few years, the spe- 
cial practice of transplanting the seedlings from hotbeds. 

The Cole Crops. Cabbage, kale, Brussels sprouts, cauli- 
flower, and kohl-rabi, are hardy and demand a cool season, 
a deep, cool soil, and an abundance of moisture at the root 
and should, therefore, receive frequent thorough irrigation. 
They will not endure standing water, however, closer to the 
surface than three feet. With the exception of kale and 
kohl-rabi, this group is generally started in seed beds and 
then transplanted to the garden when they have from four 
to six leaves on a plant. In the northern states the plants 
for these early crops are started in the hotbed or greenhouse 
from the last of February to the last of March. They may 
be transplanted in the open ground April 15th to June 1st, 
depending on the season and location, in fact any time after 
the land can be prepared. Often late cabbage and cauli- 
flower seeds may be sown in the hills in the open ground 
where the plants are to mature. In either case the plants 
are grown about 24 inches apart in rows 3 feet apart. 

The Salad Crops. Lettuce, endive, chicory, cress, parsley, 
celery, and celeriac, in general require a cool moist soil 
which retains a large amount of moisture but which is, never- 
theless, well-drained. A quick, continuous growth is nec- 
essary if the best results are to be obtained. These crops are 
often benefited by a special application of quickly available 
fertilizer, such as well-rotted manure, harrowed in just 
before the plants are set. Lettuce, celery, and celeriac are 
usually handled as hotbed or seed bed crops and trans- 
planted to the garden, while the remainder of this group are 
usually planted where they are to grow. For the small 
home garden it is frequently more satisfactory to purchase 
these plants from commercial gardeners, than to try to pro- 
duce them at home. Lettuce, endive, chicory, cress, and 
parsley may be planted in rows about 18 inches apart with 



246 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

the plants 10 to 12 inches apart in the row. Celery, however, 
should be given 3 to 5 feet between the rows, depending 
upon the methods used in blanching. The plants may stand 
6 inches apart in the row. 

The Potherb Crops include the plants used as greens. Both 
salad crops and greens should be eaten more universally by 
the American people than they are. They aid digestion and 




Figure 95. — Raising lettuce for commercial purposes. 

tone up the system, and because of the minerals they con- 
tain, especially iron, they are among the most healthful of 
vegetables. We should, therefore, use them much more 
frequently than we do. 

Greens may be divided into two groups: first, the spring 
greens that require a cool season for their best development ; 
second, those that can endure the warm season. The com- 
mon spring greens are spinach and mustard; the summer 
greens are Swiss chard, New Zealand spinach, kale, collards, 
and dandelion. 

Since the potherb crops are grown for their leaves, they 
should make a quick continuous growth in order that these 
may be crisp and tender. This means that the soil must be 
in excellent condition, well-watered, and with an abundance 



THE VEGETABLE GARDEN 247 

of available plant food, especially nitrogen. All these crops 
may be sown in early spring. The cool-season greens will be 
ready for use before the hot weather and the warm-season 
crops will produce greens all summer. They are all sown in 
rows from one to three feet apart except New Zealand spin- 




Figure 96. — Raising celery for commercial purposes. 

ach, which is planted in rows three to four feet apart because 
of its spreading habit. The summer greens should be so 
thinned as to stand from six inches to one foot apart in row. 
Solanaceous Crops. Tomatoes, egg plants, peppers, and 
husked tomatoes (ground cherries) are susceptible to frost 
injury and thrive best on the light, sandy or gravelly soils 
with a warm exposure. As this group is killed by the first 
frost in the fall, the size of the crop depends largely upon an 
early start of the plants in the spring. They should, there- 
fore, be started in hotbeds, frames, greenhouses, in boxes 
in the kitchen window or vigorous plants should be obtained 
from a local gardener. It is highly important that the young 
plants be kept continuously growing. Therefore they need 
an abundance of quickly available fertilizer. This can best 



248 WE8TEKN AGRICULTURE 

be supplied by well rotted stable manure. This group is 
generally grown in rows about 3 or 4 feet apart and 2 or 3 
feet between the plants in the row. These crops often follow 
early cabbage, lettuce, or radishes. 

Cucurhitaccom Crops. These crops include the watermelon, 
muskmelon, squash, pumpkin, and cucumber. These annual 
plants are susceptible to frosts and require a very warm sea- 
son and a full exposure to the sun, thriving best on a light, 
well-drained, sandy loam soil. They are long seasoned 
crops and it is essential that they receive an early start in 
the spring and keep growing continually to mature the crop 
before the early fall frosts. They are grown in hills and are 
usually planted in the field where they are to mature. This 
entire group is transplanted with such great difficulty that 
it can be accomplished only by planting the seed in pots or 
boxes and not disturbing the roots in transplanting. This 
method is sometimes followed by market gardeners in ob- 
taining a very early growth. Pumpkins and squashes may 
be planted 6 to 8 feet apart each way; cucumbers, musk- 
melons, and watermelons, 6 by 6 feet. 

Leguminous Crops. Leguminous crops in the garden are 
chiefly peas and beans. While the bean is very tender to 
frost injury, the pea plant is exactly the opposite, withstand- 
ing very severe frost. Except this difference, the require- 
ments for successful culture are very similar. Only a med- 
ium rich soil is required, as an excessive amount of plant food 
tends to the production of vine at the expense of pods. 
Light, sandy to gravelly loam is desirable. Plants are grown 
in rows about 3 feet apart with plants standing 6 or 8 to the 
foot in the row. The very tall peas are grown on some form 
of trellis, as chicken wire or brush. 

Sweet Corn. Sweet corn is grown for the immatui'e ears 
which are eaten when the grains are yet soft. While this is 
practically unknown in other sections of the world, it is one 
of the important vegetable crops in North America. Cul- 



THE VEGETABLE GARDEN 



249 



tivatioii of Hwcei corn is similar U) lliat of field corn and re- 
quires no great attention or skill. If possible, early and 
warm soil should be selected, as the first sweet corn for the 
table is always especially appreciated. It is generally planted 
about 3 feet apart in the rows and the plants 23-^ feet to 3 
feet in the row. On account of the wide range of maturity 
a rather continuous succession can be obtained by planting 
early, medium, and late kinds at the same time. 

Perennial Crops. These consist of asparagus, rhubarb, 
sage, catnip, horse-radish, and mint. The culture of these 
crops differs from that of the other vegetable crops in 
that they are more or less permanent fixtures in the garden 
and should be given space at one side of the area where the 
customary annual plowing and tilling will not interfere with 
their growth. 

TABLE IX. *— Amounts of Seed for 100 Feet and Standard Percent- 
ages of Germination 



Vegetable 


Amt. of Seed 
for 100 Feet 


Per 

Cent 


Vegetable 


Amt. of Seed 
for 100 Feet 


Per 
Cent 


Asparagus.... 


66 roots 


80-85 


Onion seed . . 


1 oz. 


80-85 


Beans, String 


1 pint 


90-95 


Onion sets . . . 


1 qt. 


80-85 


Beans, Lima 


1 pint 


90-95 


Parsley 


Ipkt. 


70-75 


Beets 


2 oz. 


150 


Parsnip 


1 oz. 


70-75 


Cabbage .... 


Ipkt. 


90-95 


Peas 


1 to 2 pints 


93-98 


Carrot 


loz. 


80-85 


Pepper 


1 pkt. 


80-85 


Cauliflower. 


1 pkt. 


80-85 


Potato 


6 to 7 lbs. 




Celery 


Moz. 


60-65 


Pumpkin .... 


1 oz. 


85-90 


Chard, Swiss 


2 oz. 




Radish 


1 oz. 


90-95 


Corn, Sweet. 


1 pint 


85-90 


Salsify 


1 oz. 


75-80 


Cucumber. . . 


1 oz. 


85-90 


Spinach 


1 oz. 


80-85 


Eggplant ... 


H oz. 


75-80 


Squash 


1 oz. 


85-90 


Kohl-rabi . . 


1 pkt. 




Sweet Potato 


3 to 4 lbs. 




Lettuce 


3^ oz. 


85-90 




or 75 plants 





Mustard .... 


Moz. 


90-95 


Tomato 


2 pkts. 


85-90 


Muskmelon . 


1 oz. 


85-90 


Turnip 


H oz. 


90-95 


Okra 


1 oz. 


80-85 


Watermelon . 


1 oz. 


85-90 



♦Adopted from Univ. ni. Cir. 198, p. 22, 1917. 



250 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

Commercial Gardening. This diycussion of vegetable gar- 
dening has been taken up largel}^ from the viewpoint of the 
home vegetable garden. Vegetable gardening as a business 
is a profitable, healthful vocation for such persons as are 
especially adapted to intensive agriculture. It requires very 
close attention to details and only the most energetic workers 
will be successful in this business. Such workers, with a 
good market, will be amply repaid for their skill and labor. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Discuss the preparation and management of soil for the produc- 

tion of good quality vegetables. 

2. Submit a plan for a home vegetable garden, for the average family. 

3. Give the general cultural requirements for the following different 

groups of vegetable crops: 

Root crops, cole crops, salad crops, solanaceous crops, cu- 
curbitaceous crops. 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. Building a Hotbed: Before the ground freezes in the fall, dig 
a pit six feet square and thirty inches deep. This pit should be 
dug on the south side of a building, or in any place protected 
from cold winds and yet open to the sun all day. Fill the pit 
with leaves or straw to keep the snow and frost out. 

Secure some two-inch planks and build a frame six feet square. 
Build it with the board on one side six inches wider than the 
board on the opposite side. The frame will then slope toward 
the sun and get more light. The end boards should be cut 
diagonally to fit to side boards. Set the frame on stakes over 
the pit in such a way that the bottom of the frame will be 
even with the top of the ground. Be sure that the lower side 
of the frame is toward the south. 

About March 15, have the pit filled solidly by means of tram- 
pling, to within six inches of the top with heated manure. (Any 
farmer can furnish heated manure on two weeks' notice.) 
Cover the manure with six inches of good soil. Now cover 
the frame with two hotbed sashes which are made three feet 
wide and six feet long. (Any carpenter can make them.) 
Get a good Fahrenheit thermometer and thrust it through 



THE VEGETABLE GARDEN 251 

the soil into the manure. The temperature may rise as high 
as 120° F. within the next few days. When the temperature 
goes down to 90° F., the bed is ready for seed sowing. 

2. Growing Plants in a Hotbed: When the hotbed described in 

Exercise 1 is ready for seed sowing, divide it into two parts. 
First see that the soil is well broken up and smoothed. With 
a pointed stick, make shallow trenches about eight inches apart 
across the bed from north to south. In one side of the bed plant 
a few rows each of "French Breakfast" and "Scarlet Globe" varie- 
ties of radishes and ' 'Grand Rapids' ' leaf lettuce. Sow thickly and 
cover with about M inch of soil, tamping lightly over the rows. 
In the other side of the bed, plant in a similar way seeds of 
"Stone" tomatoes and "Early Jersey Wakefield" cabbage. 
When an inch high, thin out the radishes to one inch apart, 
and the tomatoes and cabbages to three or four inches apart. 

The soil should be well-watered but only on bright, sunny morn- 
ings. While the weather is cold, keep the glass covered at 
night with straw or burlap but remove the covering when 
the sun is shining. During March and part of April the sash 
should be lifted at the end away from the wind during the 
hottest part of day and closed before it becomes chilly in the 
afternoon. As the days get warmer and longer, the sash 
may be lifted farther and kept up longer during the day until 
finally they are left off altogether during both day and night. 

The radishes and lettuce will be ready to eat in from three to 
four weeks from the time of planting. 

3. Transplanting Tomatoes and Cabbages from the Hotbed: In the 

spring, as soon as the ground is dry enough, prepare a small piece 
of ground in the garden, by spading twice and then raking 
smooth. Mark off the garden each way in rows three feet 
apart. When all danger of frost is over, it is time to transplant 
the plants from the hotbed. Dig up each plant separately with 
a large ball of dirt on the roots. Take the plants immediately 
to the garden and plant them at once in order to prevent wilt- 
ing. At the intersection of row marks in the garden, dig a hole 
deep enough to permit the plants' being set about three inches 
deeper than they were in the hotbed. Fill the hole up with 
soil and press it in firmly with the hands all around the plant. 
Water each plant thoroughly soon after planted. It is neces- 
sary that the soil be firmly packed around the roots of the 
plant, since, if the soil is loose, there will be air spaces left 
and the roots will dry out and the plant will probably die. 



:52 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

In a row by themselves set a few plants loosely without any 
firming of the soil. Watch for a few days. 

REFERENCES 

Garden Farming, Corbett. 

Garden Making, Bailey. 

Encyclopedia of Practical Horticulture, Lowther. 

Vegetable Growing, Boyle. 

Manual of Gardening, Bailey. 

Productive Vegetable Growing, Lloyd. 

The Principles of Vegetable Gardening, Bailey. 

The Small Garden Useful, Curtis. 

Vegetable Gardening, Green. 

Onions, Ralph Jordan. 

Vegetable Gardening, Watts. 

Standard Encyclopedia of Horticulture, Bailey. 

Farmers' Bulletins: 

No. 818. The Small Vegetable Garden. 

841. Home and Community Drying of Fruits and 
Vegetables. 

853. Home Canning of Fruits and Vegetables. 

871. Fresh Fruits and Vegetables as Conservers of 
Other Food. 

879. Home Storage of Vegetables. 

936. The City and Suburban Vegetable Garden. 

937. The Farm Garden in the North. 



CHAPTER XXXII 
PASTURES 

A pasture is any land from which Hve stock gather feed 
for themselves. It makes no difference whether the areas 
are made by man or by nature, nor does it matter what the 
nature of plants may be so long as they are food plants. 

Permanent and Temporary Pastures. An area naturally 
covered with the pasture crop or land continuously used 
for stock grazing is spoken of as permanent pasture. These 
permanent pastures are either range land — largely mountains 
in the West — or meadows. 

The meadows and fields cared for by man, and renewed 
occasionally — regularly or irregularly — are temporary past- 
ures. They consist either of fields left sown for a number 
of years or for one or two seasons, and of stubble fields. 

Quality of Pastures. The best pastures are thoroughly 
and evenly covered with plants that form such sod as not to 
be injured by the tramping of animals or by their biting off the 
top of the plants. These plants ought to be palatable and 
fine to encourage the animals to eat a sufficient quantity, and 
nutritious in order that the quantity eaten may nourish the 
body and supply energy for their work whether drawing loads, 
growing wool, or producing milk. The pasture needs to be 
green a large part of the year and yield a large amount of feed. 

Importance. About one third of all the improved farm 
land in the United States is in pasture. In the West, the 
range land exceeds several times in area the farm land, a 
part of which, perhaps a third or more, is temporary pasture. 
Many western valleys are so dry that they cannot be 
classed as grazing lands, although sheep feed over them and 
the arid foothills. 

253 



254 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



Immense droves of sheep and cattle formerly grazed over 
the intermountain region. The day of cattle kings is pass- 
ing rapidly where it is not now already gone, but forest re- 
serves still furnish pasture for almost countless horses, cattle, 




Figure 97. — A picture of contentment. (Warren.) 



and sheep. Grazing, however, lasts only during the summer. 
The animals removed from the range lands are turned into 
the mountain meadows and stubble fields to pick at the 
ungathered plant parts. Then they winter on meadows, 
supplemented with a partial ration of hay. 

The convenience of a pasture in which to turn animals, 
especially during haying and harvest, is of considerable value. 
Much labor is also saved. 

Wild Plants. Native grasses, together with rushes and 
sedges, largely compose these meadows. Sedges and rushes 
grow abundantly in the wet valley bottoms and sloughs. 
These supply much second-class feed on the wet lands. Salt 
grass and water grasses also grow in similar places making 
finer hay and better feed than rushes or sedges. 



PASTURES 255 

Bunch grasses, lupines, wild vetch, and numerous other 
plants are found on the ranges. Sheep get considerable 
grazing from sagebrush, shadscale, greasewood, oaks, choke- 
cherry, and other green growing shrubbery. 





1 


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HP 


K^^^ 


^^ 


^flM 




H 


Bl 


SIN 




^^^d 


hh^^^^h 


^^jo^^^ift 


1 


m 


H 


BF^^^C 


W^ 


^Hh 


Ih^^Pt .S*^prl ' gif^. 


i 


If'^ 


M 




Hi 


^^H 


i^^fl '^^^ 


1 


1 


H 




r 


^S 




1 


i 


r-1 ' Pf 

1 ^ 1- 


H ■ > i I'iJI 


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l^u 




i 


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Figure 98. — A woodland pasture. (Warren.) 

Crop Plants. Kentucky and Canada blue grasses, tim- 
othy, redtop, smooth brome grass, orchard grass, tall meadow 
fescue, Italian and perennial rye grasses, tall meadow oat 
grass, and red, white, and alsike clovers are all used in tempo- 
rary pastures. In addition to these, alfalfa, the small grains 
(with and without a mixture of peas, vetch, or cowpeas), 
corn, and millets are used to varying extent in different 
localities. 

In general, these yield more palatable and more abundant 
feed than the native grasses. Except redtop, they thrive 
best on well-drained soils that are fairly rich in lime. Blue 
grass and the rye grasses need much moisture. 

Mixed Plants. There are several benefits derived from 
mixtures for pastures. (1) They usually render more possible 
a continuous growth from early spring to late fall. (2) They 
usually increase the yield, as they can be made to feed in dif- 



256 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

ferent soils or during different seasons of the year. (3) Tliey 
render the feed more palatable on arcoinitof variety, and more 
nutritious particularly if the grasses have legumes sown with 
them. (4) The legumes aid in keeping up the fertility. (5) Deep 
rooting aids in loosening up the subsoil, thus promoting drain- 
age and increasing available moisture. (6) A plant that estab- 
lishes itself in one season, when mixed with one requiring two 
or'more years, yields feed until the other can get well started. 

Just what mixture to use is always a question. There 
are all variations within a given mixture, according to the 
land, to the animals pastured, and to the fancy of the owner. 

The Utah Experiment Station reports these three mix- 
tures of seed for sowing: 

For bench lands under irrigation: 

Kentucky bkie grass. . . 12 pounds White clover 2 pounds 

Smooth brome grass. . . 8 " Red clover 2 " 

Perennial rye grass .... 6 " Alfalfa 2 " 

Orchard grass 3 " 

For light sandy soils under irrigation: 

Kentucky blue grass. . , 8 pounds Smooth brome grass. . . 8 pounds 

Meadow fescue 12 " White clover 2 " 

Tall meadow oat grass. 5 " 

For low, wet lands (as sloughs): 

Perennial rye grass .... 8 pounds Meadow fescue 2 pounds 

Redtop 10 " Alsike clover 5 " 

Rhode Island bent grass 4 " White clover 2 " 

Various experiments on dry-farms show that smooth 
brome grass is the only successful pasture grass. Alfalfa 
is sometimes used for dry-farm pasture, particularly when 
either the first or second crop promises to be too small to 
pay for cutting. Many farmers turn the animals on stubble 
to gather remnants which would dry up and hence be lost 
by blowing away. Pastures on dry-farms seem to be more 
suitable for horses than for other animals. 

For Different Animals. Horses do better on dry pastures 
than other animals, because they need rather large fields to 
afford exercise. They do not eat so close to the ground as to 



PASTURES 257 



injure the root crowns of alfalfa. They can also get on with 
less water than other animals, but need it regularly; and 
they do not bloat easily as do sheep and cattle. 




Figure 99. — Rocky land can often be best used for pasture. (Warren.) 

Cattle need a more succulent feed and more water than 
horses; therefore green pastures are more valuable, par- 
ticularly for milch cows. As cattle eat rapidly, they bloat, 
especially on alfalfa wet with dew. Since horses worry 
cows, both ought not to be grazed in the same pasture at 
the same time. 

Sheep do best on small pastures used in rotation, in order 
to keep down parasites. Shading is valuable to sheep, as is 
also fine feed. Resistant sod is preferable, as they eat close 
and injure the root of alfalfa and some grasses. If there are 
no trees in the field, sheds should be provided to give shelter 
from the sun. 

Hogs do well on small pastures, because they require Httle 
food at one time. Shade and water in the feed lot are impor- 
tant. As soon as one lot is eaten off, the hogs should be 
moved into another, with abundant feed. They should not 
be allowed to waste feed by tramping it down. 

17— 



258 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



Poultry also do better with access to green feed. 
Improvement of Pastures. Land not easily handled in 
the regular cropping system is usually grazed. The rocky 




Figure 100. — A stump pasture. (Warren.) 

and very rough areas will, for a long time at least, be left in 
pasture, as not much else can be done with them. Remov- 
ing many rocks is rather expensive. 

Draining will much improve meadows that are too wet 
in the spring or throughout the entire season. Some spots 
may be too dry. A combination of drainage and irrigation 
can remedy this condition. Brush lands generally need 
partial or entire clearing before they become good pastures. 

Rushes and sedges tend to give way slowly to the more 
valuable grasses after the lands are drained. Plowing and 
resowing may substitute this slow method. 

The bunches of grass that occur everywhere are rejected 
forage around a spiny weed, such as a thistle, or around a 
manure dropping which seems to taint the grass or drive oif 
the animals by its odor. Harrowing two or more times a 



PASTURES 259 

year with brush or spike-tooth harrows, or even disking, 
loosens the soil and scatters the manure. The harrow, 
supplemented by a grubbing hoe, removes the weeds that 
offend the cattle. Now, however, that Canada thistles 
have entered the mountain states, some attention ought to 
be paid to weeding pastures. They are very troublesome in 
sod, since they spread by underground stems as well as by 
seed. They are extremely hard to eradicate. 

Poor stands may be made thicker by harrowing and by 
sowing extra seed. 

Overstocking causes too close grazing, which injures the 
pasture as well as the animal. The remedy is manifestly 
one of prevention. Fertilizers, particularly farm manure, 
increase the yield, if they be well -scattered. In the West, 
however, few persons would advocate commercial fertilizers. 

Constant use, even when unaccompanied by overstock- 
ing, is bad. Two or three pastures prevent this injury. 

The number of animals that may pasture a field and the 
time they should feed on it deserve consideration. Strong 
sod will bear close grazing longer than weak. Timothy, 
orchard grass, and the clovers, except the white, suffer im- 
mediately. The blue grasses, redtop, the sedges, and the 
rushes are rather persistent and will withstand considerable 
close feeding. It is probably economical to graze firm sod 
closely, since bunches are thereby prevented and stalks not 
allowed to become tough from being mature. 

Rotation. It is doubtful whether meadows should re- 
main longer than a few years without being plowed. The 
plants weaken, the soil texture breaks down, and parasites 
may accumulate until the old sod is a menace. The most 
successful meadows are a part of the farm rotation. In 
its turn, every four to ten years, the meadow is moved to the 
advantage of the plant, the soil, the animal, and the farmer. 

One meadow should not always be grazed by one kind 
of animal.. Feeding habits differ enough to be a factor in 



260 > WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

pasture management. With a large field, it is ordinarily 
better to use only part of it at a time and so to rotate the 
animals that they are not mixed. Dairy cows should not be 
worried by horses nor be in contact with the wallows of hogs. 

A part of the pasture should be allowed to go unused at 
times. It needs a rest which permits the plants to grow up 
and keep green. 

Parts of the meadow will not be eaten down, having 
bunches of coarse-stemmed grass. The mower should be 
run over these spots at least twice a year. The coarse 
stems make better hay than pasture. Often horses and 
cattle will pick up the clipped stems, although they avoid 
them while standing. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is a pasture? Give kinds. 

2. Why is sod needed in pastures? 

3. Why does grass grow more rapidly after being nipped off than 

does alfalfa or clover? 

4. Who owns the best pasture in your neighborhood? Describe it. 

What care is given to it? 

5. Give the advantages and disadvantages of pasture mixtures. 

6. Why do cows need a greener pasture than horses? 

7. Why should pastures be on the poorer land? 

8. Why is it good to rotate the animals for pasturing? 

9. Why rotate the meadow? Does it always pay? When? When 

not? 
10. Give the chief points to keep in mind in handhng hogs and sheep 
on pasture. 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. Visit a pasture. Are there any bunches in it? How might they 

be removed? 

2. Examine a pasture in detail. Find the reasons for irregular 

growth. How large is the pasture? Have many animals pas- 
tured on it? What inexpensive improvements could be made? 
Are the gates in the best places? Is the fence properly cared for? 

3. Visit good and poor pastures. Compare them. 



PASTURES 261 

Make a map of your neighborhood. Mark on it the pasture areas. 
Indicate the good and poor ones by different markings. Ac- 
count for them. 

REFERENCES 

Western Grazing Grounds and Forest Ranges, Barnes. 

Meadows and Pastures, Wing. 

Farm Grasses of the United States, Spillman. 

Grasses and How to Grow Them, Shaw. 

Forage Plants and Their Culture, Piper. 

Forage and Fiber Crops in America, Hunt. 

Field Crops, Wilson and Warburton. 

Field Crop Production, Livingston. 

Principles of Agronomy, Harris and Stewart 

Alfalfa in America, Wing. 

The Book of Alfalfa, Coburn. 

Forage Crops, Vorhees. 

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. I. 



CHAPTER XXXIII 
WEEDS 

At the outset it should be remembered that in the plan 
of nature there is no such thing as a weed. As so often 
stated, every plant wars with every other plant for oppor- 
tunity to live; it is a life-and-death struggle. It is only when 
we come to consider the plant in relation to man that the 
term "weed" comes into existence. If it could be realized 
and appreciated that in nature each plant plays its part and 
each has its aesthetic characters, weed extermination would 
hardly be carried on by man in the sullen spirit often seen. 

What Is a Weed? A weed may be designated as a plant 
which is deemed undesirable. ''It is a plant out of place." 
Other designations of weeds are: ''Any injurious, trouble- 
some, or unsightly plant that is at the same time useless or 
comparatively so." "A plant which interferes with the 
growth of the crop to which the field is temporarily devoted." 
Accordingly, barley plants in the wheat field, wheat plants 
in the barley field, if not wanted, must be designated as weeds. 
Furthermore, it is to be remembered that a crop may be a 
weed unto itself. Often the producer has too many plants 
standing on a certain area for the best yield. The apple, 
the pear, the peach tree are seen often so heavily loaded, that 
one individual fruit acts as a weed to the other. Why is the 
fruit thinned ])y the wise horticulturist? 

Injury Done by Weeds. The injuries by weeds are many 
and of various kinds. Among the injuries produced may be 
mentioned the reduction of soil fertility. Plant foods that 
are iieeded for the crop are in part used l)y the weeds; the 
result is a lessened yield. Another serious injury is that of 
robbing the soil of the moisture which is necessary for crop 

262 



WEEDIS 



263 



production. When it is realized tliat a coin plant, accoixling 
to Haberlandt of Germany, may trans[)ire, during a single 
growing season, 30 pounds of water, a hemp plant 60 pounds, 
and a sunflower 135 pounds, some idea is gained as to how 

much water may pass 
from the soil through 
plants. According to 
Dr. Duggar, one of the 
foremost plant phys- 
iologists of the United 
States, the amounts 
given are in general 
too low for conditions 
in our own country. If 
this statement is ac- 
cepted, then how much 
too low must the fig- 
ures be for conditions 
in the arid West? 

Weeds also exert 
injury by crowding 
and shading, thereby 
causing the plants of 
the desired crop to 
grow slender and ab- 
normally small. The 
presence of some kinds of weeds makes the harvesting of 
the crop very difficult and expensive. Such weeds are the 
dreaded Russian thistle, which is becoming all too abundant 
in the arid West, the wild buckwheat, and the wild morning- 
glory. Other weeds are very noxious, because they harbor 
parasitic fungi that attack the cultivated crop. Such are the 
mustard, which harbors the organism causing clubroot of 
cabbage, and the white rust of radish and salsify. Some 
weeds are poisonous to man and animals, while others give 




Figure 101. — A Russian thistle. 



264 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

the animal trouljle in eating. An example of the latter is 
the common squirrcltail, the awns of which enter the gums 
of animals and cause ulcerations. 

Duration. By duration is meant the length of life of the 
plants. Weeds classified under this head are annuals, winter- 
annuals, biennials, and perennials. Annuals are plants that 
have but one growing season, such as cowcockle, sunflower, 
Russian thistle, and cocklebur. Winter-annuals are such 
as the common shepherd's-purse whose seeds germinate in 
the fall, the plant completing its growth the following spring 
and summer. Biennial weeds are those whose existence 
embraces two growing seasons. The first season the plant 
produces only root, stem, and leaves, while the second it 
produces flowers and fruit. Common examples are the bull 
thistle, wild carrot, and burdock. Such weeds never appear 
in lands properly cultivated and plowed every year. Peren- 
nials live more than two years. They continue to produce 
seed year after year. Common examples are the morning- 
glory and the dandelion. 

Dissemination of Weeds. By dissemination is meant 
dispersal, or scattering. It is readily seen how important 
it is to the existence of the weed that this should occur, if 
we remember that the mother plant has been absorbing food 
material from the soil during its growth and development 
and has probably given off poisonous substances from its 
roots, all of which go to make the soil more or less unfavorable, 
temporarily at least, for the production of more plants of 
the same kind. Hence, if the seeds are disseminated to new 
regions, the chances for survival are better and thus a weed 
is not very likely to become a weed unto itself. 

The dissemination of weed seeds is accomplished by var- 
ious agencies, some of the most important of which are wind, 
water, animal, and man. It is common to see dandelion 
and milkweed seeds floating through the air, wafted here 
and there by the breezes. Every country boy has often seen 



WEEDS 265 

piles of tumble weeds heaped up along some fence row. It 
is almost inconceivable how many seeds have been scattered 
as the plants rolled along the way. When it is recalled how 
wild oats spread from field to field, and how the sweet clover 
and cocklebur spring up along the ditch banks, good illus- 
trations are shown of the work of water in scattering weeds. 




Figure 102. — Field bindweed. 

One who has occasion to remove burs of the cocklebur 
and burdock from the hairy coat of the dog, or from the 
horse's mane and tail cannot fail to appreciate how effective 
animals may be as carriers of weed seeds. Animals, how- 
ever, are also very effective in weed dispersal in a manner 
usually not so evident as illustrated above. They eat seeds 
which are not digested and which pass through the alimen- 
tary tract without injury. Often by this method weeds 
are carried great distances into new regions. 

Man himself is fundamentally very much at fault as an 
agent in weed dispersal. The tools with which he works his 
land, the machines that do tlie threshing and other crop 
work are often taken from field to field uncleaned. Morally 
speaking, man himself is very much to blame for present 
conditions, in that he buj^s and sells impure seed. Seed of 



266 



W EASTERN AGRICULTURE 



some particular crop is purchased in some other state and 
with this seed it is not uncommon to find many other seeds 
present, some of which are persistent weeds. The grower 
takes no notice of these, and only a year or so follows until 

he realizes that a serious draw- 
back to a good crop lies in his 
own careless actions. The con- 
dition can be remedied only by 
greater watchfulness and care on 
the part of both the producer 
and the seller. 

Weed Laws. Laws may be 
and should be passed for the 
destruction of weeds, but the 
farmers should not fail to appre- 
ciate that they can do much 
themselves by concerted and en- 
ergetic action. Weed laws should 
embrace a number of important 
points and should be passed only 
after careful consideration. Laws, 
under some circumstances, give 
no help but have a tendency to 
suppress local efforts in farming 
communities. Inspection of seed 
would do much to improve weed as well as seed conditions. 
Rural high schools and farmers' organizations might do 
much good by a little wisely directed effort. 

Extermination. In extermination, any method adopted 
must depend upon the nature and habit of the plant, the soil, 
and the location. All annuals may be destroyed in culti- 
vated lands by any method which hastens germination and 
prevents seeding. Biennials should be cut off below the 
crown. Where plowing is impossible, mowing may be re- 
sorted to, but usually the plant will be induced by this 




Figure 103. — Mustard. 



WEEDS 267 

method to shoot out and l)e('oiiie more troublesome, provitHng 
repeated mowing is not continued. The perennials are, gen- 
erally speaking, the most troublesome of weeds. This fact 
is due to the peculiar habit of many to produce roots and 
underground stems, which, when severed, will produce a 
new plant. A single plowing often makes the weeds in this 
class more pernicious. We must here resort to special meth- 
ods. For details of which one of the weed manuals listed 
at the end of this chapter should be consulted. 

One of our specialists on weeds has tersely given the key- 
note to weed extermination under the following few general 
principles: 

1. There is no weed known which cannot be eradicated 
by constant attention, if the nature of the growth is under- 
stood. 

2. Never allow weeds to ripen. 

3. Cultivate frequently, particularly early in the sea- 
son, so as to destroy seedlings. 

4. Many weed seeds can be induced to germinate in 
autumn by cultivating stubbles immediately after harvest. 
Most of these seedlings will be winter killed or can easily be 
disposed of by plowing or cultivating in the spring. 

5. All weeds bearing mature seeds should be burned. 
Under no circumstances should they be plowed under. 

6. All weeds can be destroyed by the use of ordinary 
implements of the farm — the plow, the cultivator, the har- 
row, the spade, and the hoe. 

7. Be constantly on the alert to prevent new weeds 
from becoming established. 

8. It might also be added that it is often advisable to 
practice rotation of crops, and also to destroy weeds by the 
use of herbicides. 

Sprajdng. Much experimentation in extermination of 
weeds by herbicides has been carried on both is this country 
and in Europe. Success has followed in some cases. 



268 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

Some of the most succ'cssful herbicides together with 
their proper usage are as follows: 

Copper Sulphate (blue vitriol), 12 pounds to 50 gallons of 
water. Spray in dry weather. This spray destroys leaves 
of burdock, prickly lettuce, common mustard, prostrate pig- 
weed, and goosefoot. 

Iron Sulphate (green vitriol), 100 pounds to 50 gallons. 
Spray before weeds are in bloom. This spray destroys dan- 
delion, dooryard knotgrass, purslane, yarrow, sorrel, large 
ragweed, hedge mustard, sourdock, smartweed, mustard, 
velvetleaf, small ragweed, lamb's-quarters, peppergrass, sow 
thistle, bull thistle, wild carrot, pigweed, shepherd's-purse, 
and spurge. 

Carbolic Acid. One part to four parts water. Thorough- 
ly agitate. Use along walks. This spray kills pigweed, 
smartweed and pigeon grass. 

For further details on the use of herbicides consult Pam- 
mell's ''Weeds of the Farm and Garden." 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is a weed? 

2. How do weeds injure crops? 

3. Classify them, 

4. In what ways are weeds spread? . 

5. Discuss weed laws. 

6. Give the best methods of exterminating weeds. 

7. Give the principal points concerning spraying to kill weeds. 

8. List the common weeds of the neighborhood. 

9. Wherein may weeds be beneficial? 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. The instructor will mix up one or two gallons of one of the spray 

mixtures given on this page of the text. Obtain a small hand 
sprayer and spray a plot of ground that is covered with weeds. 
Note the kinds of weeds and record the effects of the spray. 
Tabulate the results. 

2. Dig up by the root some Canada thistle, morning-glory, or other 

weed that spreads underground. Note that on the root stalks 



WEEDS 269 

are buds. These send up new stems. Compare these with 
the roots of annual weeds. 

REFERENCES 

Farm Weeds of Canada, Clark and Fletcher. 

Manual of Weeds, Georgia. 

Weeds of the Farm and Garden, Pammel. 

Weeds, Shaw. 

Any textbook of botany. 

Agronomy, Clute. 

Principles of Agronomy, Harris and Stewart. 

Farmer's Bulletins: 

No. 279. A Method of Eradicating Johnson Grass. 

306. Dodder in Relation to Farm Seeds. 

368. The Eradication of Bindweed, or Wild Morning-glory 

660. Weeds: How to Control Them. 



CHAPTER XXXIV 

PLANT DISEASES 

When is a plant said to be diseased? If a plant which 
varies from the ideal is regarded as diseased, then nearly 
every plant is diseased; for the factors which determine 
growth are usually not ideal. Disease, however, is usually 
made to embrace any striking variation such that the life of 
an organ or sometimes the life of the plant as a whole is 
threatened. All gradations exist between that which is 
called disease and that which is regarded as health. 

CLASSIFICATION 

I. Germ diseases caused by: II. Non-germ diseases caused by : 

(1) Slime molds (1) Lack of water 

(2) Bacteria (2) Excessive water 

(3) Fungi (3) Alkali 

(4) Flowering plants (4) Smelter smoke 

How plants are injuriously affected by lack of water, too 
much water, alkali, etc., is given where the study of crop 
production in relation to water and soils is considered. 

Germ diseases are those in which a living plant (the causal 
organism) lives upon another living plant, the host, and brings 
about those abnormal conditions which result in a marked 
decrease of vitality and in premature death. The causal 
organisms have accustomed themselves to obtain their car- 
bohydrates from other living organisms and are hence called 
parasites in opposition to those organisms called saprophytes 
which obtain their carbohydrates from dead organic matter. 

SLIME MOLD DISEASES 
The diseases caused by slime molds are generally of little 
significance in the arid West. Occasionally, however, where 
cabbages are grown, one of these diseases known as the club- 
root of cabbage and other crucifers arises. 

270 



PLANT DI8EA8ES 



271 



Clubroot of Cabbage. Hosts. Some of the plants which 
become diseased by the shme mold organism are cabbages, 
cauliflowers, Brussels sprouts, turnips, rutabagas, radishes and 
■ certain mustards. 

There seems to be 
little information 
as to the relative 
susceptibility of 
different varieties 
of crucifers to this 
disease. 

S y m ptoms. 
Seedling plants 
sbow a decided 
wilting or flagging. 
They are stunted 
and have an un- 
healthy appear- 
ance. Most seed- 
lings attacked die. 
When older plants 
are attacked, the 
first indication of 
disease is a decid- 
ed wilting during 
the heat of the 
day which is overcome during the night when transpiration is 
less rapid. This condition is brought about by the organ- 
ism which has invaded the root tissue and caused excessive 
and abnormal growth in the phloem and cortex regions at 
the expense of the xylem region, which is the water conduct- 
ing tissue of the plant. The clubbing of the roots is very 
characteristic. The roots are greatly enlarged at the base 
while toward 'the tip they appear normal. Curious malfor- 
mations are likely to occur. 




Figure 104. — Clubroot on cabbage. Losses from this 
disease have often been disastrous. 



272 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



Control. The disease cannot be cured; so, the only course 
of action must be prevention. The following rules are 
applicable : 

1. Avoid all those conditions which favor disease, such 
as lack of clean cultivation, manuring before planting, and 
poorly drained lands. 

2. Where cabbage is fed to animals it should be cooked 
beforehand to destroy the organism or otherwise the spores 
will pass through the alimentary tract uninjured. 

3. Deep plowing should constantly be the rule. 

4. Since the organism preys upon various crucifers, 
rotate crops. In the rotation, crops not of the cruciferous 
kind should be used. 

5. Clean soil should always be in the seed bed. To 
obtain this always sterilize with steam or with formalin. 

6. When soils are acid, liming should be practiced. Use 
75 bushels of air-slacked stone lime per acre. 

BACTERIAL DISEASES 

The two most disastrous bac- 
terial diseases are all that can be 
studied in this short chapter, 
although more than one hundred 
and twenty-five are known. 

Pear Blight. Hosts. The 
plants usually attacked are pear, 
apple, and quince. The germ also 
attacks hawthorns and plums. 
Of the pear, such varieties as 
Bartlett, Flemish Beauty, Seckel, 
and LeConte are more suscept- 
ible than are such as the Kieffer, 
Duchess, and Winter Nelis. The 
disease, while usually not as dis- 
astrous on apples as on pears, 
often becomes quite serious. 




Fire blight on pear 



PLANT DISEASES 



273 




Figure 106. — Fire blight 
on an apple tree. 



Symploms. Body blight, or canker, 
shows itself as diseased areas in the bark 
of the body or the large limbs. When 
the disease is active, these cankers are 
of a dark water-soaked appearance and 
the advancing margin is indefinite, or 
raised and blistered, with or without 
ooze of reddish brown drops issuing from 
the lenticels. When the canker is no 
longer active, it has a definite margin. 
It is then separated from the healthy 
tissue by a crack. These cankers form 
about the base of a blighted shoot or 
spur. They are the means by which 
the disease is carried over winter. Blos- 
som blight is evidenced by sudden wilt- 
ing and blackening of the young fruit shortly after the petals 
fall. Then follows wilting and blackening of the young 
leaves of the spur. This form 
of blight is disseminated by 
insects or other small animals 
which visit the ooze contain- 
ing the blight organism which 
is found on the edge of the 
active cankers and carried to 
the blossom. Twig blight 
shows as a sudden wilting and 
blackening of the young twig 
from the tip downward. Fruit 
blight shows as a water-soaked 
area on the green fruit which 
blackens. From the lenticels 
of the fruit milky drops con- 
taining the bacteria ooze out. 

Figure 107. — Twig blight on apple. 




274 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 




Figure 108. —Crown gall on 
beet. It is found on fruit- 
bearing, flowering, and veg- 
etable plants. 



Control. The remedy for this 
disease lies in cutting out infected 
areas. The disease may generally 
be controlled. If all growers knew 
the various stages of the disease and 
were very vigilant in attempting to 
free the orchard from it, the disease 
could practically be eradicated. All 
withered growth that shows evi- 
dence of the blight should be pruned 
out before blossoming time. 

Summer pruning is also practiced. 
Wherever blight is cut out the ex- 
cised material should be carried 
from the orchard and burned. All 
wounded areas made during the winter or summer should 
be well washed with a solution of 1 part of corrosive sub- 
limate to 1,000 parts of water. If care in pruning is not 
exercised and the wound is not sterilized, the disease may be 
spread rather than controlled when pruning is attempted. 
Crown Gall. Hosts. Grapes, raspberries, peaches, apples, 
pears, pecans, and many other plants, both cultivated and 

wild, are at- 
tacked by crown 
gall. The organ- 
ism may live in 
the soil and be 
carried by irri- 
gation water. 
Nursery stock is 
a very common 
means of dissem- 
ination. Older 
trees are less 

Figure 109.— Crown gall on peach tree. likely aitected. 




PLANT DISEASES 275 

Symptoms, It is chiefly characterized by galls or swell- 
ings on the crowns or roots. The galls may be smooth or 
rough — usually rough — and hard or soft. At times the roots 
throw out tufts of smaller roots, whence the name ''hairy- 
root." The galls vary in size from small on small roots to 
large on large ones. 

Control. Avoid planting any nursery stock which show^s 
any signs of disease. Healthy trees should not be planted in 
soil already infected. Trees planted should be healed over as 
much as possible and in cultivation care should be taken that 
few wounds on the underground parts of the tree are pro- 
duced. It is difficult to remove successfully the diseased 
portions. Control is, therefore, rather a matter of preven- 
tion than of cure. 

FUNGOUS DISEASES 

Fungous diseases are more numerous by far than bacte- 
rial diseases. Only a few of the principal types, however, 
can receive consideration. 




Figure 110. — Gooseberry leaves affected with mildew. 

Gooseberry Mildew. Symptoms. This disease is charac- 
terized by the white or gray patches of mildew upon leaves, 
stems, and fruit of the goosel^erry. Occasionally it is found 
attacking the currant bushes. 



276 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

Control. The best results so far obtained have been by 
the use of a solution of potassium sulphide, 1 ounce to 2 gal- 
lons of water. Spraying should begin at the time the buds 
burst in the spring and be repeated every 10 days, if the 
fungus is present in considerable quantities. 

In general the mildews are very similar in appearance 
and readily identified. The treatment usually consists in 

the use of some sulphur 
or sulphide spray which is 
applied throughout the 
season every two weeks, if 
conditions require. Some 
of the most destructive 
mildews are those of the 
peach, the apple, and the 
grape. 

Potato Scab. Symp- 

Figure 111.— Common potato scab. toms. Scab first shoWS by 

a minute reddish or brown- 
ish spot on the surface of the potato tuber, generally when 
it is very young, though sometimes not so early. After it 
has once appeared it may extend quite rapidly to the 
surrounding tissue, becoming deeper in color and being asso- 
ciated with an abnormal corky development which often 
covers a considerable area. This area may constitute a 
more or less irregular scab-like crust over the surface, or 
more frequently may become deeply cracked, depending 
upon the stage at which the tubers first become diseased. 
Those which are attacked while very young show, as might 
be expected, by far the most deeply seated injury. 

Control. The methods of control are of two natures, 
treatment of the seed and of the soil. In general the only 
soil treatment resorted to is liming the soil where it is some- 
what acid (an acid soil favors the growth of the organism), 
and to practice a judicious rotation of crops. 




PLANT DISEASES 277 

When the grower has a large (luantity of seed to treat 
he may store it in crates in a tight cellar or compartment 
in such a way that the air can circulate freely between the 
crates. To every 1,000 feet of air space 23 ounces of potas- 
sium permanganate and 3 pints of formalin should be used. 
The potassium permanganate is placed in a large receptacle, 
as a tub, and the formalin poured quickly over it. Rapidly 
tilt the tub first to one side and then to the other, so that the 
formalin covers the potassium permanganate. Then leave 
the room instantly and close the door. Formaldehyde is 
generated, which circulates throughout the compartment, 
disinfecting and killing the germ in the scab spot. Allow 
the potatoes to stand over night or for the period of about 
12 hours. Then open the door and allow the formaldehyde 
to escape. 

For small quantities of potatoes use 1 pint of formalin 
to 30 gallons of water and immerse the potatoes in this so- 
lution for from 1 3^ to 23^ hours. Remove after this period 
and dry. In place of formalin, bichloride of mercury (cor- 
rosive sublimate), 1 pound to 125 gallons of water, can be 
used. This solution should be made up in a wooden barrel. 
It is very poisonous to man and all other animals. 

Finally, plant clean seed in soil as free from the disease- 
producing germ as possible. To obtain the seed use a small 
seed plat. 

The potato is one of the most extensively diseased of 
crops. No less than ten very serious diseases have been 
studied. Their close similarity of symptoms in so many 
instances makes it impossible to study them to advantage 
without microscope and laboratory facilities. 

Covered, or Stinking, Smut of Wheat. This disease is 
caused by two separate species of fungi which are so nearly 
alike in their appearance and whose effects upon wheat are 
so similar that, when speaking of stinking smut, both fungi 
are regarded as one. 



278 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



Symptoms. The affected heads are of somewhat darker 
green color than normal, or healthy, heads and the individual 
spikelets are somewhat smaller and a little farther apart. 

Always associated with the disease is a disagreeable odor 
which gives the disease the name ''stinking" smut. The 




Figure 112. — Stinking smut on wheat. 

place usually occupied by the kernel is now occupied by the 
smut spores. These remain enclosed by the ovary walls 
and glumes; hence the name ''covered" smut. 

Control. Control is secured by treating the grain with 
a fungicide. The principal fungicides so far in use have 
been formalin and blue vitriol. 

In the formalin treatment, the seed may be put in sacks 
containing one half to one bushel each, and then be immersed 
from 10 to 30 minutes in a solution containing 1 pint of for- 
malin to 50 gallons of water. At the end of the allotted time 
drain the sacks over the barrel for a short time and put away 
the wet sacks or heap the grain and cover it. Let the grain 
stand in the wet sacks or lie in the heap for two hours, then 



PLANT DISEASES 270 

spread out and dry. Shoveling over the grain will facilitate 
the drying. 

When using the blue vitriol, use 1 pound to 4 gallons of 
water and immerse the wheat for 5 minutes. Then remove 
and dry. Somewhat more seed should be used than when 
sowing untreated wheat, as the germinating power of the 
grain is reduced about 15 per cent. 

It does not follow that treating grain will produce a crop 
absolutely clean. The smut spores may probably live in 
the soil at least one season and affect in many instances seed 
that has already been treated; thus the crop may be some- 
what smutted. 

After seed is treated, use clean sacks and a clean drill. 

DISEASES CAUSED BY FLOWERING PLANTS 

There are a great many diseases caused by flowering 
plants. Two of the most common diseases of this group in 
the West are those caused by the mistletoes on the conifers 
and junipers, and the dodder on the alfalfa and clover. 
The mistletoes are of considerable interest to the forester, 
while the dodder attracts the attention of the farmer. 

Dodder. Hosts, Symptoms, etc. The dodder attacks 
clover, alfalfa and many other plants. It grows from the 
seed as a long, slender, yellow filament which sways in the 
air until by chance it comes in contact with the host plant. 
Thereupon it twines itself about the host, sending hmistoria 
into the bundles where water, salts and organic food are 
obtained for its growth. After attachment has finally occurred 
the dodder no longer has use for its roots which, in turn, die 
and the plant is then entirely dependent on the host. After 
seeds have been produced the dodder dies. The seeds lie 
on the ground until tlie following spring when the same story 
is repeated. Providing the dodder filament produced from 
the seed does not come in contact with the host, it perishes, 
as it is unable to sustain itself upon food material derived 



280 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

directly from the soil. Alfalfa and clover plants become 
exceedingly dwarfed under severe cases of the disease and 
mostly become valueless as a fodder crop. 

ConiroL The seed of the parasite resembles the alfalfa 
or clover seed and is, therefore, easily disseminated with it. 
Great care should be taken to purchase clean seed. Diseased 
areas in the field may be burned when covered with straw 
upon which kerosene should be sprinkled. Rotation of crops 
yields very satisfactory results. 

QUESTIONS 

1. When is a plant diseased? 

2. State the causes of plant disease. 

3. Name several of the most common plant diseases. 

4. Describe pear blight. Give method of control. 

5. Do the same for crown gall, gooseberry mildew, and wheat smut. 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. Crown Gall: Collect samples of plants attacked by the crown gall 

organism. Note the general appearance of the gall. Note the 
cracks and ridges. Is the gall hard or soft? Sometimes second- 
ary galls appear farther up on the tree. Do any of the samples 
of the crown gall show any deformity of the root system? 
What is the cause of "hairy root?" Draw. 

2. Pear Blight: If conditions are favorable, this should be a spring 

field trip. Visit some pear or apple orchard where the blight 
is to be found. Look on the trunks or branches of the trees 
for sunken areas, the "hold-over" cankers. What is their 
function? See if you can find honey-like drops oozing out. 
What are these drops? The blight also attacks the blossoms, 
young twigs, and young fruit. How can insects help to carry 
the disease to the blossoms of young twigs? How can you tell 
how far the blight has advanced on a young twig? Do the 
trees show any signs of the fruit's lieing blighted? Draw. 

3. Covered, or Stinking, Smut of Wheat: Examine a head of wheat 

affected with stinking smut. Compare a diseased head with a 
normal head. Note differences in color, shape, kernel, etc. 
Make drawings showing these differences. Mount some spores 
in a drop of water and examine under the microscope. Note 
color, size, etc. Draw. 



PLANT DISEASES 281 

Powdery Mildeivs: Study any available powdery mildew such 
as that on grasses, doorweed, willow, gooseberry, etc. Examine 
the affected plant both in the field and in laboratory. What 
part is affected? What injury occurs to the host? 

Potato Scab: Secure specimens of potatoes diseased with scab. 
The disease may show as a scab-like crust over the surface, or 
it may become deeply cracked and furrowed. Study until you 
become so thoroughly acquainted with the disease that you can 
detect it. 

Dodder: Secure samples of dodder or take a field trip to some 
place where it can be observed growing. Note the general 
appearance of the attacked plants as compared with the healthy 
plants. Note the way in which this parasite attacks the host. 
Write the life history of dodder. 

REFERENCES 

Fungous Diseases of Plants, Duggar. 
Diseases of Economic Plants, Stevens and Hall. 
Any good text of botany. 
Farmers' Bulletins: 

No. 75. The Grain Smuts. 

507. The Smuts of Wheat, Oats, Barley and Corn. 
Minn. Bulletin 133. Spore Germination of Cereal Smuts, Stak- 

man. 
Minn. Bulletin 160. Rye Smut, Stakman and Levine. 
U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 360. Mistletoe Injury to Conifers in the 

Northwest, Weir. 



CHAPTER XXXV 
CONTROL OF INSECT PESTS 

An insect is an invertebrate animal possessing three main 
divisions of the body: A head which contains the mouth 
parts, eyes, and antennae, or feelers; a thorax, to which are 
attached three pairs of legs and usually one or two pairs of 
wings (some insects never have wings) ; and an abdomen, the 
posterior end of which contains the reproductive organs. 
Insects breathe by means of trachea, which are finely divided 
tubes passing all through the body and reaching the outside 
by small openings on the abdomen and on the thorax. The 
blood circulates freely through the body, supplying the insect 
with the oxygen necessary to continue its life. 

Feeding Habits. Insects have two types of mouth parts 
— biting and sucking. Of the biting insects, grasshoppers, 
beetles, and caterpillars are best known. Among those 
insects which secure their food by sucking are the true bugs, 
the leaf hoppers, and the butterflies and moths. 

Not all insects are injurious: many should be protected. 
We usually do protect the honey bee and the silk worm. 
There are other insects that pass their fives preying upon 
their fellow creatures, and still others that lay their eggs inside 
of other insects, their young feeding inside of the host and 
eventually killing it. It is well, in studying insects that are 
supposed to be injuring crops, to take into consideration these 
facts; to examine the insect and find whether it is really doing 
damage, and, if it is, whether that damage is done by suck- 
ing the sap or juices of the plant or whether it is caused by 
the insect's actually chewing up the leaves for food. 

In no country has the loss by insects been heavier than 
in the United States. It has been conservatively estimated 

282 



CONTROL OF INSECT PESTS 283 

that the present loss reaches one bilhon dollars annuall}^ 
Cultural methods and the proper use of spraying and other 
insecticides will save to every man a large part of this loss. 

Codling Moth. As a typical example of an insect that 
feeds by chewing its food, and that is controlled by feeding 
it a poison, we may take the larvae, or young, of the codling 
moth, the apple worm. This insect causes more damage than 
all other apple insects in the intermountain region. The 
worms pass the winter in tough cocoons, hidden in the rough 
bark on the trunk or larger limbs, under rubbish in the 
orchard, or in fruit cellars. In the spring they change into 
the pupa, or resting, stage and later are transformed into 
moths. These moths, which are nearly the color of the apple 
bark, come out from ten days to two weeks after the blossoms 
fall and lay their eggs on the apple leaves or on the apples, 
where the fuzz has been rubbed off, or where two apples are 
touching. The great majority of these worms, when they 
hatch, go in at the calyx, or blossom end of the apple. At 
this point there are very few hairs and the worm can obtain 
an easy entrance. They remain in the apple from twenty 
to thirty days, bore their way to the outside, crawl down the 
tree, hide away, spin their cocoons, and pass into the resting, 
or pupa, stage. In ten to fourteen days, a second brood of 
moths appears. The eggs of this second brood are usually laid 
on the apples, the larvae, when hatching, eating in at the 
side or any other i)oint on the apple. When these worms are 
full grown, they leave the apples, go down the tree, and spin 
the tough cocoons in which they live over winter. Many of 
the worms are not full grown at the time of apple picking 
and so are carried into the fruit cellars or crawl out of the 
apples while they are lying on the ground. 

It will be noticed from the above that the first brood of 
worms usually goes in at the t)lossom end of the apple and that 
they are not present on the trees until after the apples have 
formed. At this time the blossom end of the apple is so well 



284 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

closed up by the little leaves which surround it, that any 
spraying for the codling moth must be done before the worms 
are present in the orchard. 

Spraying. The accepted time for spraying is immediately 
after the blossoms fall from the trees. In looking at an 
apple tree, we find that the blossoms on the tree always point 
towards the light. Thus blossoms are pointing outward in 
every direction. In order to get poisonous compounds into 
this blossom end, it will be necessary to use considerable 
pressure and drive the spray into the partly closed cup. The 
spray to use is lead arsenate, at the rate of two pounds to 
fifty gallons of water. Use a Bordeaux nozzle, driving the 
spray directly into the center of the blossom end. Pay no 
attention to the leaves on the tree. Look only for the blos- 
som ends and put the spray there. One hundred pounds 
pressure or more is necessary to do the work. It is neces- 
sary to have a tower or ladder on a wagon so that one 
can get above the blossoms that are pointing upward. A 
bamboo rod, attached to twenty-five feet of good seven-ply 
hose having at the nozzle end of the rod a 45-degree angle 
to which the nozzle is attached will aid in doing this work 
properly. Do thorough work. Do not miss a blossom. The 
nozzle should be kept moving up and down the branch all 
the time. It is ordinarily a wise precaution to repeat this 
spraying ten to fourteen days later in order to poison the 
cups of the apples that were not ready at the time of first 
spraying. If the orchard is badly infested or close to badly 
infested orchards, it may be necessary to spray for the second 
brood about the first week in July with a mist spray, en- 
deavoring to cover the apples with the spray. In any case 
put burlap bands around the trees about a month after blos- 
soming and remove these bands every ten days, killing the 
worms that appear under them, until al)out the 20th of August. 
Then the bands need not be removed until after the apples are 
picked, when they should be taken off, the worms under them 



CONTROL OF INSECT PESTS 285 

killed, and the bands put away for the next year. The bands 
should be made of pieces of burlap which are one foot wide, 
folded down four inches from the topT, and put around the tree 
with the long flap on the outside and fastened with a tack. 

Among other insects which may be handled by arsenate 
of lead spraying are the pear and cherry slugs, the tent cater- 
pillar, the fall webworm, and the sugar-beet caterpillar. The 
leaves of trees or plants affected with these insects should be 
covered with a mist spray. 

Scale Insects. The sucking type of insect requires an 
entirely different method of treatment. With scale insects, 
which belong to the sucking class, it is often necessary to 
spray in the winter time, using what is known as the lime- 
sulphur wash. These insects at this time are on the trees, 
covered with the cast-off skins and a waxy secretion, which 
make what is called the scale. In early spring, in the case 
of the San Jose scale, which works on all our fruit trees, the 
young are born alive, and in about twenty-four hours com- 
mence feeding, the females probably never leaving the spot 
when they begin feeding. There are several generations 
during the summer. The scale protects this insect so effec- 
tively that it is very hard to put on the tree while it is grow- 
ing anything that will be strong enough to penetrate the scale 
and still not injure the leaves and fruit; hence we are prac- 
tically restricted to winter work. 

Sprayiny. The lime-sulphur wash may be a homemade 
preparation. Use 15 pounds of sulphur and 20 pounds 
of lime, to 50 gallons of boiling water. This is best pre- 
pared by having about 5 gallons of boiling water, adding 
the lime in small lumps and following this immediately with 
the sulphur. It will be found necessary to stir this mixture 
rapidly for some time to keep it from boiling over. It is 
sufficiently cooked when it stops changing color and may 
then be diluted down to the necessary 50 gallons. In using 
the prepared or manufactured lime-sulphurs, in the case of 



286 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

those that contain water, they should be so diluted that 
they are no weaker than one to six. The powdered lime- 
sulphurs which are now on the market will certainly be 
cheaper so far as the transportation of the materials is con- 
cerned, and should be used at the rate of 15 pounds to 
50 gallons of water. It is always best to use a hydrometer to 
test the strength of lime-sulphur compounds. In using lime- 
sulphur care should be taken to cover every part of the tree 
which is being sprayed. If necessary, go over it two or three 
times so that all of the tips of the twigs and the crevices in 
the bark are thoroughly covered. This mixture will aid not 
only in controlling scale insects, but will also kill the eggs of 
the aphids or plant lice, and those of the brown mite, or red 
spider, which are laid on the apple and other fruit trees. 

If by any chance lime-sulphur spray has not been given 
to trees that are heavily infested with the eggs of plant lice, 
when these insects hatch they must be controlled as early 
as possible. When leaves are just well opened, good results 
will be obtained by spraying with a tobacco mixture using 
one of the sheep dips of the strengths recommended in the 
printed directions, and driving the spray up from beneath 
so that it will strike the under side of all the leaves where 
the plant lice are feeding. 

Arsenic Bran-mash. There is one other insecticide that 
is in general use, a mash for poisoning insects such as grass- 
hoppers in fields and orchards, and cutworms in gardens. 

The arsenic bran-mash consists of a preparation of 1 
pound of white arsenic, 4 to 6 pounds of sugar, and 12 to 20 
pounds of bran and 3 oranges or lemons. Mix these dry, 
then dampen sufficiently to cause the sugar to stick to the 
bran and to liold the arsenic. Grind or cut up the fruit and 
mix thoroughly into the mash. This may then be sown 
broadcast along edges of fiekls where grasshoppers are coming 
in, or scattered in small piles around trees or in gardens 



CONTROL OF INSECT PESTS 287 

iirouiid plants that may 1)C injured by cutworms or grasshop- 
pers. Keep chickens away. This mixture is poisonous. 

Cultural Methods. Among the general means of control 
of insects, it must not be forgotten that the most important 
is clean culture — the destruction of all the weeds, rubbish, 
and other trash in and around fields, houses, barns, and other 
buildings. Crop rotation is also necessary; especially is this 
true in the case of the alfalfa weevil, an insect which lives 
entirely by feeding on the leaves and stems of plants in the 
alfalfa group. Alfalfa should not be grown on the same 
soil more than four or five years at a time. If the fields are 
infested with the alfalfa weevil, the land should be thoroughly 
cultivated in the spring or fall, using a disk or spring-tooth 
harrow. This cultivation will also aid in getting rid of grass- 
hopper eggs. As soon as the first crop is removed, the land 
should be gone over with a spring-tooth harrow and followed 
with a heavy brush or wire drag. By this means many of the 
larvae or young of the weevil will be crushed or otherwise in- 
jured. The most of the leaves and buds will be pulled from 
the stubble and the alfalfa-weevil worms which are remaining 
in the field will have nothing upon which to feed. One day 
of hot sunshine will then kill a large percentage of them. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is an insect? Distinguish between insects, red spiders, 

nematodes, and sow bugs. 

2. How would you distinguish between injuries caused by biting 

insects and sucking insects? 

3. Why is it necessary to put the first codling moth spray into the 

calyx cup? 

4. Why may the calyx cup be neglected with the second spray? 

5. Why are cultural methods of control, where possible, preferable 

to other methods? 

6. How would you protect parasitic or predaceous insects from 

destruction? 

7. Why is it necessary to study carefully the life history of an insect 

before it is possible to ascertain the best method of control? 



288 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

8. Of what value are birds to the general fanner? 

9. Why should the English sparrow he destroyed? 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. Schools should use insects in the particular region where they 

live for illustration. Plants can be kept in the schoolroom and 
insects, such as aphids will readily multiply upon them. Cater- 
pillars and other biting insects may be kept in small boxes and 
fed daily with their proper food. Study insects in the field in 
order to gain knowledge of their habits. 

2. Visit an apiary and study the honeybee at work. 

3. If in a farming neighborhood visit some up-to-date farmers and 

see them in their work of controlling such insects as codling 
moth, San Jose scale, or alfalfa weevil. 

REFERENCES 
Insects and Disease, Doane. 
The Butterfly Book, Holland. 
The Moth Book, Holland. 
The House Fly Disease, Howard. 
The Insect Book, Howard. 
Insects Pests, Sanderson. 
Insects Injurious to Staple Crops, Sanderson. 
Elementary Entomology, Sanderson and Jackson. 
Fruit Insects, Slingerland and Herrick. 
Insects Injurious to Fruits, Saunders. 
Our Insect Friends and Enemies, Smith 
Bureau of Entomology Bulletins up to 1914. 
U. S. D. A. Bulletin (New series). 

Farmers' Bulletins: Write U. S. Government Printing Office for 
List. 
No. 127. Important Insecticides. 

691. Grasshoppers and Their Control on Sugar Beet and 
Truck Farms. 

725. Wireworms. 

741. Alfalfa Weevil. 

747. Grasshoppers and Their Control in Relation to Cereal 
and Forage Crops. 

799. Carbon Disulphid as an Insecticide. 

851. The House Fly. 

909. Cattle Lice and How to Eradicate Them. 

940. Common White Grubs. 



CHAPTER XXXVI 
BEEF CATTLE 

Domestic cattle originated from two wild types, one from 
which European and American cattle are derived, and the 
other the humped cattle of India. In early European his- 
tory two types were known, one a large type sometimes called 
the great wild ox, from which evolved the larger breeds of 
cattle; the other type, smaller and more deer-like, from 
which came the smaller breeds of cattle. 

Meat Production. Meat forms a large part of the food 
of the white races, and, therefore, meat-producing animals 
occupy a very important part of the agricultural interest of 
the world. There are on earth nearly three hundred mil- 
lion cattle that may be classed as meat-producing; hence 
the United States, owning more than forty miUion, produces 
more than one eighth of the world's beef. Meat is not, as 
formerly, all consumed near the place where it is produced; 
but, as a result of modern methods of transportation, is 
shipped to all parts of the world. 

Beef Type. In general a beef animal should show the 
meat-producing form, which is found in a low-set, blocky, 
deep, thick animal, having a large percentage of edible meat. 
The ideal beef animal has straight back (topline) and straight 
underline, and he stands on short legs. Cutting off head 
and legs leaves a square block of beef. 

The Feeder. Feeders, or store cattle, are those in thin 
condition, which lack finish and must be fattened before 
slaughter. Feeders should conform to the general beef type, 
as the lower-set, blocky ones gain faster. A good feeder 
should have a short, broad head, a strong jaw, a wide muzzle, 
and large eyes and nostrils, a wide back and loin, a deep rib, 

19 — 289 



290 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

and a long, deep hind quarter. Long-headed, narrow- 
chested, high-flanked steers do not make satisfactory gains 
and are not desirable as feeders. "Rather fine bone, loose 
skin, and silky hair are preferable, since they denote quality. 
The Fat Animal. The finished animal should have the 
low, blocky form mentioned, with the short broad head and 




Figure 113. — Good beef — the round. 

the quality of the feeder, carrying a good proportion of meat 
in the regions of the valuable cuts. The neck should be 
short and thick: the shoulders, smooth; the chest, deep and 
full; the back, long, broad, and deeply fleshed; the loin, 
broad and thick; the hind quarters, long, full and deep, the 
meat being carried well down to the hocks. An animal of 
the above type will give a good carcass of first-class meat, 
when dressed. Good meat is bright red and shows traces of 
fat through it. 

The Carcass. One of the principal concerns of the 
butcher is the killing or dressing percentage, that is, the pro- 
portion of meat to live weight. Cattle dress out all the 
way from fifty to sixty-nine per cent, though the latter is a 
mark very rarely reached. 

There is a great difference in the value of the different 
cuts of meat. The best cuts are found in the back and hind 
quarter. The back furnishes the rib roasts; the loin, the 
sirloin and porterhouse, or T-bone steaks; the rump, the tip 
roasts; the thigh, the round steak. From the neck, shoulders, 



BEEF CATTLE 



291 



brisket, and flanks, come the cheaper cuts of beef used for 
boiHng pieces, stews, soup, and sausage. The tenderer parts 
of the beef bring the higher prices. 

BREEDS OF BEEF CATTLE 

Shorthorn. The Shorthorn cattle, once called Durham, 
originated in eastern England along the Tees river in the 




Figure 114. — Champion two-year-old Shorthorn cow. 

counties of Durham and York. The native cattle were 
good grazers, and by selection among these and by the intro- 
duction of some cattle from Holland, the Shorthorn breed 
was developed. This is one of the oldest breeds, having 
been improved since about 1600. 

In color, the Shorthorns are mixed, being red, white, or 
roan, or a mixture of these. The roan is the only charac- 
teristic color. In size, Shorthorns are among the largest 
of cattle, bulls often weighing over a ton and cows from 



292 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



1,400 pounds up. Shorthorn cattle should be low-set, 
blocky, and broad-backed. As a breed they are squarely 
built with a heavy hind quarter and great width of loin. 
These cattle have a clean-cut head and show considerable 
quaUty, style, and finish. 

Doing well under a great variety of conditions, they are 
the most widely distributed of any breed. Under range 




Figure 115. — A prize winning Hereford bull. 



conditions Shorthorns do very well and so they are popular 
in the West. As milkers they surpass all other beef breeds, 
some of them being very satisfactory at the pail. To a 
Shorthorn cow belongs the distinction of having been the 
highest priced bovine ever sold, up to 1915, $40,600 having 
been paid for the Eighth Duchess of Geneva. 

Polled Durham. The Polled Durham is an American 
breed developed from the Shorthorns, differing from them 
only in the absence of horns. This breed is rather popular 
in sections of the East, but little known in the range states. 

Hereford. Herefordshire in western England is the home 
of the Hereford cattle. This breed was developed at about 



BEEF CATTLE 



293 



the same time as the Shorthorn, dating back to the six- 
teenth century. The ancestors of Hereford cattle came from 
the native cattle of England with probably a few additions 
from the Flanders and Holland cattle. 

Hereford cattle are very uniform in characteristics; in 
color, for instance, they are red with white faces, white along 




Figure 116. — A prize winning Hereford cow. 

the underline and sometimes on the back. In size the 
Herefords are large, ranking close to the Shorthorns, This 
breed conforms to the ideal beef type very closely, as they 
are low-set, smooth, and fine in bone. The body of the 
Hereford is cylindrical, with a round, plump appearance. 

As range cattle Herefords rank very high; for they are 
good grazers, doing well on rough range, and readily with- 
standing hardship. As milkers they do not rank high; yet 
they usually feed their calves well. They are widely dis- 
tributed and are proving expecially useful in the range sec- 
tion of the United States, where they are probably the most 
popular breed. • 



294 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

Aberdeen-Angus. The Aberdeen-Angus breed of cattle, 
known as Polled Angus, or '^doddies," was developed in 
north Scotland, from the native cattle of the district. 

They are a black, hornless breed that conforms very 
closely to the ideal beef type. They are very cylindrical 




Figure 117. — Black Bird, a champion Aberdeen-Angus Cow 

in body with a smooth appearance. On account of fine 
bone and hair and a neat appearance throughout, the Aber- 
deen-Angus cattle rank high in quality. In size the breed 
ranks well, though they are not quite so large as Shorthorns. 
These cattle are fair grazers, but do better in corn-belt pas- 
tures than on the range. 

As milkers they do not rank high, but seem to give enough 
for their calves. In the production of high-class beef, how- 
ever, the Aberdeen takes first rank; for they have won more 
prizes than any other breed, both for beef steers and for 
carcasses. 

Galloway. A Scotch breed of cattle known as the Gal- 
loway was developed in the hill country of southwestern 



BEEF CATTLE 295 

Scotland. These cattle are black and hornless like the 
Aberdeen-Angus, but differ considerably in some other char- 
acteristics. The Galloway cattle are squarer in outline than 
the Angus and they have a longer, thicker coat of hair which 
is more like fur. They produce high-class beef and do well 
in extremely cold climates. In the West, where Shorthorns 
and Herefords are the common types, they are little used. 

DUAL-PURPOSE TYPE OF CATTLE 

Dual-purpose, or general-purpose, cattle are those sup- 
posed to be good for both beef and milk. Some breeders 
claim that animals of this type can be profital^ly produced, 
but as a rule the special dairy or beef cattle are regarded 
as more desirable. 

Red Polled. The Red Polled breed originated in Eng- 
land and has met with some favor in this country. This 
breed, usually solid red in color, is somewhat smaller than 
the strictly beef breeds, and more beefy in appearance than 
the dairy breeds. It is doubtful whether they will ever be 
popular on the ranges. Very few are found in the West. 

Devon. The Devon cattle, a red, horned breed, origi- 
nated in southwestern England. These cattle are large and 
smooth, with fine bone. Being rather slow feeders, they 
have met with but little popularity in the United States. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is the probable origin of cattle? 

2. Describe a typical beef animal, that is, the beef type. 

3. Name the kinds of l^eefsteak. Which are best? Why? 

4. Name the breeds of beef cattle. 

5. Briefly describe each. 

6. What are dual-purpose cattle? 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. If possible, examine a beef to see the kinds of meat. It might 
be possible to visit a butcher shop. 



296 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

2. Collect pictures of the breeds of beef cattle, 

3. Visit some farm nearby on which are kept pure-bred beef cattle. 

Learn the name of the breed. Observe the general color and 
the location and color of spots. Note the shape and size of 
body, the shape of head and horns, and the fineness of skin 
and hair. 

4. If time permits practice scoring by a score card. 

5. Collect prices on live and dressed beef. 

REFERENCES 

Beef Production, Mumford. 

Western Grazing Grounds and Forest Ranges, Barnes. 
Types and Market Classes of Live Stock, Vaughan. 
Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, Plumb. 
Principles and Practice of Judging Live Stock, Gay. 
Beginnings in Animal Husbandry, Plumb. 
Farmers' Bulletins: 

No. 183. Meat on the Farm : Butchering, Curing, and Keeping. 
612. Breeds of Beef Cattle. 
811. The Production of Baby Beef. 



CHAPTER XXXVII 
DAIRY CATTLE 

THE DAIRY TYPE 

There is a rather close relation existing between the form 
of an animal and its use. This fact has already been seen 
in case of beef cattle, which are blocky in form and thickly 
covered with flesh, their fmiction being to produce the most 
meat possible. Experiments have shown that cows of this 
type do not produce as much milk and butter-fat on the 
average as cows of another type. It has been shown that 
they require more feed for the production of a given amount 
of milk or butter-fat, and that they dry off earlier than cows 
of the other type. Since the function of dairy cattle is to 
produce milk and butter-fat, very little of their feed is stored 
in their bodies as flesh. In performing this function certain 
parts of the body have been worked more than other parts. 
Therefore, in accordance with the law of nature, that great 
exercise causes great development, we find the parts of the 
cow used most in making milk are more highly developed 
than the parts of her body that are less exercised. 

The Udder. Of course, the udder, being the immediate 
factory where the milk is made, is the point of chief consid- 
eration. It must be large, well-shaped, and of fine quality, 
not meaty. 

Milk Veins. It is essential to a good dairy cow, that she 
have a strong, well developed blood circulation; for this is 
the agency which distributes the prepared raw materials 
(the digested food) to the various parts of the body where 
they are most needed. Especially important is the blood 
supply to the udder. This quantity can be j udged in a gen- 

297 



298 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 




Figure 118. — Showing structure and epithelial cells of 
the udder. 



eral way by the 
amount of 
blood leaving 
the udder in the 
so-called milk 
veins extending 
forward along 
either side of 
the abdomen in 
front of the 
udder, and en- 
tering the ab- 
dominal wall 
through openings called milk wells. It is, therefore, im- 
portant that these veins be as large and branching as 
possible, showing a capacity to carry large amounts of blood. 
The size of the milk vein can easily be determined by insert- 
ing the end of the finger in the milk well and noting its size. 
Barrel. No matter how large and perfect any factory 
is, it cannot turn out manufactured goods without raw 
materials in abundance. Milk is made from the food the cow 
eats. In order, therefore, to have plenty of raw material 
on hand from which to produce milk, large amounts of feed 
must be eaten and 
be well digested. 
The conclusion, 
then, is inevitable : 
the digestive or- 
gans of a cow must 
be large and vig- 
orous. This, of 
course, means that 
a good dairy cow 
will have a large 

Korrol r^r mirlrllo Figure 119. — Diagram showing blood supply to the 

uarrei, or miuaie. udder of a dairy cow. 




DAIRY CATTLE 299 

Chest. However great the capacity of any factory or 
however large the amount of raw material suppHed, note- 
worthy stores of the finished products cannot be produced 
if the machinery is weak, frail, and short-lived. Just so 
withlhe dairy cow. She must be healthy, vigorous, and have 
a strong constitution if she proves capable of standing up 
under the severe strain of producing- large quantities of milk, 
and giving birth to healthy vigorous calves. These points, 
vigor and strong constitution, are indicated by great chest 
capacity as shown by a deep chest and large heart girth, 
allowing ample room for large, vigorous vital organs (heart 
and lungs); and by a large, bright, full eye, large nostrils, 
and a broad, strong muzzle. 

Temperament. The so-called dairy type has been pro- 
duced as explained above and is built around the points 
there mentioned. First, the dairy cow should have an active, 
highly organized temperament with strong nerve force. This 
is shown by her being lean, spare, and angular and carrying 
no surplus flesh. A large, bright, active eye goes with a good 
dairy temperament. Viewed from the side, she should be 
deeper through the hind part of her body than in front, 
showing an inclination to a wedge shape. From the rear 
and above, another wedge is seen, broad across the hooks, or 
hip bones, and narrowing down to a point at the withers. 

Conformation. A more detailed examination of the 
dairy cow should reveal a lean, shapely head with broad, 
strong muzzle and jaw, a full, bright, active eye, ears medium 
sized and of fine texture, and horns, when present, that show 
refinement and quality throughout. The neck is thin and 
usually somewhat long. The shoulders are prominent and 
lacking in covering and come together in sharp withers at 
the top. The back should be straight, the spinal processes 
prominent, with little covering and having an openness be- 
tween them that is entirely absent in the beef type. The 
body should be long and deep. The ribs are far apart though 



300 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



not SO wide sprung as in beef cattle. They should be long, 
giving great capacity to the digestive and vital organs. The 
space should be long from the attachment of the last rib to 
the hip bone and from the hip bone to the pin bone. Lean- 




Figure 120. — A typical head of a Jersey bull. 



ness and prominence of bones should characterize the rump. 
The hind quarters should be thin and spare, leaving ample 
room between the legs for a large udder. 

The udder should be large, and attached high behind and 
far forward. The four quarters should be equally developed 



DAIRY CATTLE 301 

and not too distinctly divided by grooves. The udder should 
be free from meatiness and when milked out should collapse 
and be very loose and pliable, showing that the size is due 
entirely to the active milk-producing cells. The milk veins 
leaving the udder in front should be large and tortuous, 
extend far forward on the body, and enter the abdomen 




Figure 121. — A pure-bred Jersey cow — a prize winner. 

through large milk wells, thus showing a large blood supply 
to the udder. If a cow has more than one milk well on a 
side, so much the better. 

Quality, desired in the dairy cow as in all other classes of 
animals, is shown in about the same way; namely, thin pli- 
able skin, fine, silky hair; and fine, dense bone and horn. 
These characteristics are important. 

Dairy Bulls. In dairy bulls the same general dairy type 
is demanded as in dairy cows except that the bull must show 
pronounced masculinity by having a burly head and a well- 
developed crest on the neck. Dairy bulls usually carry 
more flesh and show less of the wedge shape than the cows of 



302 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



the same breed. Aside from this difference the desirable 
points are very similar. 

As mentioned above, no matter which of the four dairy 
breeds is being considered, the dairy type just described 
should be found in all its points. 




Figure 122. — Holstein-Friesian bull. 



DAIRY BREEDS 

The Jersey originated on the Island of Jersey which has 
a land area of about 40,000 acres in the English Channel; they 
developed, supposedly, from native stock of the island, mixed 
with cattle from the neighboring districts of France. They 
have been kept pure })y laws prohibiting all foreign cattle 
from landing on the island except for immediate slaughter. 
Not until 1850 were Jerseys imported to this country, but 
since then large numbers have been brought over. They 
are perhaps the smallest of the dairy cattle, the cows weigh- 
ing from seven hundred to eleven hundred pounds, and 
mature bulls about thirteen hundred pounds. In color they 



DAIRY CATTLE 



303 



are fawn, though this varies from a very light to an almost 
black color. White occurs, though not popular; yet some 
of the greatest animals of the breed have had white markings. 
The most striking features of the Jerseys are beauty, color, 
short dish-faces, prominent, beautiful eyes, and deer-like 




Figure 123. — A champion butter-fat cow of the world. She produced in one year 
27,762 lbs. of milk and 1,205.1 lbs. of butter-fat. 



calves. They have always been noted for their rich milk, 
containing as it does from four and one half to six per cent 
fat. Their milk yield is not so large as some of the other 
breeds, though its richness brings the total fat production 
up to a high figure. One Jersey cow, Sophia 19th, of Hood 
Farm, produced in one year 999.14 pounds of fat and 
and 17,557.75 pounds of milk. 

The Holstein-Friesian cattle were developed in Holland. 
This type has been known upwards of two thousand years. 
Of course the breed has been considerably improved in that 



804 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



time, but the foundation stock seems to have been the native 
cattle of that country. 

Much of the best land in Holland is below the level of 
the sea, the water being held back by immense dikes. Grasses 
grow rather luxuriantly, though they are of the coarser, less 




Figure 124. — Langwater Dairy Maid. Sold for $6,150. When eight years old she 
produced 16,949.2 lbs. of milk and 812.66 lbs. of butter-fat. 



nutritious varieties. Thus the animals developed there have 
adapted themselves to these conditions and are able to utilize 
considerable quantities of the coarser feeds. 

No doubt the early Dutch settlers of New York and 
vicinity brought over their own breed of cattle. We have 
record of a definite importation in 1795; but not until 1861 
and after were large importations made and the animals 
kept pure. 

These cattle are the largest of the five daiiy breeds, the 
cows weighing from twelve hundred to fifteen hundred pounds 
and bulls from nineteen hundred to twenty-five hundred 
pounds. In color they are black-and-white spotted, the 



DAIRY CATTLE 



305 



proportion varying from almost pure white to almost pure 
black. Their heads are inclined to be long, narrow and plain, 
and the horns often appear small. The body is large and 
roomy with the udder often very large. There is consider- 




Figure 125. — A noted Ayrshire bull showing type, quality and smoothness found 
so highly developed in this breed. 



able difference in the type of Holstein cows, some carrying 
decidedly more flesh than others which adhere more strictly 
to the dairy type. They all lack the refinement, quality, 
and beauty characteristic of the Jersey. 

Holstein cows give more milk than any other breed, 
though the per cent of fat in it is lower. About three per 
cent is common and four per cent is unusual. One cow, 
Dutchess Skylark Ormsby, gave in one year 27,761.7 pounds 
of milk and 1,205.09 pounds of fat, this being the present 
(1917) world record for butter-fat. 

Guernsey Cattle originated on the island of that name, 
near the Island of Jersey. The ancestry and conditions of 

20— 



306 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



development of the Guernseys are very similar to those of 
the Jersey cattle, though somewhat more care seems to have 
been taken in the early breeding of the Jersey. 

The first importation of Guernsey cattle to the United 
States occurred about 1850. These were brought directly 
from the Isle of Guernsey in the English Channel. 




Figure 126. — Lilly of Willow-Moor, a noted Ayrshire cow having a record of 
22,106 lbs. of milk containing 888.7 lbs. of butter-fat and showing good type 
and smoothness. 



Guernsey cattle are somewhat larger and more uniform 
than Jerseys; the cows weigh about one thousand pounds, 
and bulls about fifteen hundred pounds. Their color ranges 
from a light to a dark fawn, with or without white markings. 
In amount of milk and butter-fat and in per cent of fat the 
production of the Guernsey cow is very similar to that of 
the Jersey. Murne Cowan, the champion cow of the Guern- 
sey breed, produced 24,008.0 pounds of milk and 1,098.18 
pounds of fat. 



DAIRY CATTLE 307 

Ayrshire cattle are a Scotch breed originating in the 
county of Ayr in southwest Scotland, the region made famous 
by Robert Burns. Most of the land, except near the sea, 
is rather hilly and rough, though it produces an abundance 
of good grazing in the summer. Back from the sea the 
winters are rather severe. 




Figure 127. — A noted Brown Swiss bull, Reuben 2927, showing type and rugged- 

ness desired. 

This breed is regarded by all authorities to have been 
founded later than the three preceding dairy breeds. Its 
origin is not definitely known, though the breed is thought 
to be the result of a mixture of the native cattle of the 
district, with Shorthorns and with Jersey, 'Guernsey and 
Alderney cattle. 

Ayrshires are not numerous in the United States, though 
some good herds are kept. There seems to be no definite 
record of their introduction to this country before 1837. 

In size this breed is about the same as the Guernseys. 
They are rounder and plumper and carry more meat than 



308 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

any other dairy breed. The color may be red and white, or 
brown and white, either color predominating. The head of 
the Ayrshire is very characteristic, carrying as it does rather 
long, out-and-upturned horns. The udders are perhaps more 
nearly perfect than the udders of any other breed, being 




Figure 128. — Lottie, a pure-Jared Brown Swiss cow, who gave 17,593 lbs. ot milk 
and 664.2 lbs. of fat in official record. 

exceptionally well-balanced and carried close up to the body 
though the teats are often small. 

The milk and butter records of the Ayrshire are only fair. 
The milk usually tests three and two tenths to four per cent. 

Brown Swiss cattle are native to the cantons of Zurich, 
St. Galen, Luzern, and Schwyz in northeast Switzerland. 
This breed is one of the oldest in existence. It is supposed 
to have descended from cattle found in this region since before 
the beginning of human history. This belief rests on the 
discovery in ruins of the Swiss Lake Dwellers of skeletons of 
animals closely resembling the characteristics of the present 



DAIRY CATTLE 



309 



Brown Swiss. Very little infusion of foreign blood is thought 
to have taken place in their development. 

The Brown Swiss is one of the larger dairy breeds. The 
cows weigh from twelve to fourteen hundred pounds and the 
bulls frequently pass the ton mark. In color they vary from 
a silver gray to a deep, rich, brownish-black. A lighter strip 
down their backs and a yellowish muzzle are their two chief 
marks. The quiet, nonresentful disposition of this breed 
is very noticeable and recommends them to many who 

STUDENTS' SCORE CARD 
DAIRY COW 



SCALE OF POINTS FOR DAIRY COW 



DAIRY TEMPERAMENT AND MILK SECRETING SYSTEM— fifty points 

1. Udder, large but not pendulous; attached high behind and extend- 

ing far forward; pliable and free from meatiness; evenly quartered; 
not deeply indented between teats; udder veins numerous and 
plainly visible 

2. Veins and Wells, milk veins large, long, active, tortuous, branching 

and entering numerous large wells 

3. Teats, evenly and symmetrically placed on quarters; convenient 

and uniform in size and length; free from lumps, warts and 
tendency to leak 

4. Body, angular; wedge shape; lean and clear cut throughout 

5. Disposition, active, with good nerve control, not flighty 

6. Eye, prominent but not popping; bright and quiet 

FEEDING CAPACITY— twenty points 

7. Barrel 

Deep — ribs long, abdomen large but firmly held up by strong 
muscular development 

Wide — ribs well sprung; loin broad and strong 

Long — ribs far apart and broad, spinal processes prominent, loin 
long 

8. Muzzle, broad, lips full 

9. Jaws, deep and strong 

CONSTITUTIONAL STRENGTH AND VIGOR— twenty points 

10. Chest, deep, wide on floor and full at elbows, indicating lung capacity 

11. Carriage, alert and energetic 

12. Skin, thin, loose and mellow, indicating good circulation and secre- 

tion ; hair fine 

13. Nostrils, large and expanded 

GENERAL APPEARANCE, showing large size, symmetry and balance of 

parts into a completed whole — ten points 

14. Head, lean, broad between eyes, features clean cut and intelligent. . 

15. Neck, thin, lean, trim, rather long, joined neatly to head and 

shoulders 

16. Withers, thin and not open 

17. Top-line, straight and strong, carrying level over tail head 

18. Breed Character, pure-breds to show size, markings and general 

characteristics required; grades to show the predominence of the 
blood of some dairy breed 



TOTAL 100 



Score 



30 



310 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

dislike the active, nervous temperaments of most of the 
other dairy breeds. 

Records give the date of their first importation to the 
United States as 1869. Since that date the numbers have 
increased by importation and breeding till there are now 
more than 11,000 registered in the herd books of the American 
Brown Swiss Cattle Breeders' Association. 

Until. 1908 they were classed as dual-purpose cattle, but 
since that date the association has been emphasizing their 
dairy qualities and they are now recognized as a distinctly 
dairy breed. The Registry of Production for the breed was 
established in 1911. Butter-fat records for cows of this 
breed are not especially high. Seven-day records above 14 
pounds of fat and yearly records exceeding 700 pounds are 
rare. The milk usually tests between three and one half 
and four per cent. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Illustrate the relation existing between the form of an animal and 

its use. 

2. What has been the underlying cause of the development of dairy 

type? 

3. Of what value is constitution in dairy cattle? How is strong 

constitution shown? 

4. What is meant by dairy temperament? How is it shown? 

5. Give a brief statement of the origin and early history of Jersey 

cattle. 

6. What are the chief characteristics of the Jersey? 

7. Where and under what conditions did Holstein-Friesian cattle 

develop? 

8. What are the distinguishing characteristics of Holstein-Friesian 

cattle? 

9. Give briefly the early history and development of Guernsey cattle? 

10. How do Guernseys differ from Jerseys and Holsteins? 

11. Discuss the history, development, and distinguishing character- 

istics of Ayrshire and Brown Swiss cattle. 



DAIRY CATTLE 311 



EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. To determine the production of dairy cows, secure scales, milk 

sheet, test bottles, milk thief, and Babcock testing machine. 

Note: If a milk thief is not available, mix thoroughly and re- 
move a small quantity with a dipper or a spoon. 

Weigh the milk of each cow each milking for one month. 
Record the weight each time on the milk sheet under the 
proper cow's name. For some one week during the month take 
a composite sample of each cow's milk by putting a small sample 
of each of the fourteen milkings into a properly labeled sample 
bottle. A pint fruit jar may be used if a regular sample bottle 
is not available. As soon as the milk is weighed thoroughly 
stir it, preferably by pouring it from one pail to another, and 
immediately take the sample. This can be done with a regular 
milk sampler or with a dipper. In the summer or if the sample 
bottles are kept where it is warm, a preservative will be neces- 
sary to keep the milk sweet. A few drops of formalin or a 
special corrosive sublimate milk preserving tablet may be used 
in each bottle. At the end of the week test the various samples 
for butter-fat (see Chap. XLV.) At the end of each month 
total each cow's milk and multiply the total weight by the test 
as found during the test week to get the amount of butter-fat. 
If this is multiplied by the market value per pound the value 
of the fat is obtained. 

2. To find the cost of feeding a dairy cow, weigh separately all feeds 

given the cow for two days during each month. Taking these 
weights as averages determine how much of each feed she has 
consumed during the month. Multiply the monthly weight 
of each feed thus obtained by its market price to get the value 
of the feed eaten. 
Note: Accurate figures on the profit of dairy cows can only be 
obtained by taking into account, in addition to the cost of feed 
and the value of the product, the interest and the depreciation 
on the investment involved, the cost of bull service, the cost 
of labor, insurance, etc., and the value of the calf and manure 
produced. 

3. Use the results of Exercises 1 and 2. Subtract the cost of the 

feed consumed by the cow from the value of the butter-fat pro- 
duced during the same period and this gives the profit above 
cost of feed. 



312 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



REFERENCES 



Productive Dairying, Washburn. 

Dairy Cattle Feeding and Management, Larsen and Putney. 

Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, Eckles. 

Dairy Farming, Eckles and Warren. 

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock, Vaughan. 

The Breeds of Live Stock, Gay. 

Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, Plumb. 

Livestock Judging and Selection, Curtis. 

Principles and Practice of Judging Live Stock, Gay. 

Judging Farm Animals, Plumb. 

Beginnings in Animal Husbandry, Plumb. 

Farmers' Bulletins: 

No. 55. The Dairy Herd. 

106. Breeds of Dairy Cattle. 

350. The Dehorning of Cattle. 

351. The Tuberculin Test of Cattle for Tuberculosis. 
355. A Successful Poultry and Dairy Farm. 

639. Eradication of the Cattle Tick Necessary for Profitable 

Dairying. 
689. A Plan for a Small Dairy House. 
743. The Feeding of Dairy Cows. 
893. Breeds of Dairy Cattle. 
Department Bulletin 434. Judging the Dairy Cow as a Subject 
of Instruction in Secondary Schools. 



CHAPTER XXXVIII 
THE HORSE 

Man's most useful helper among the domestic animals 
is probably the horse, and, on account of this help, the beauty 
and intelligence of the horse have been the theme of song 
and story almost since the world began. 

In prehistoric times horses were small animals about the 
size of a fox terrier dog, from which they have evolved to 
their present size. Although the remains of prehistoric 
horses are found in America, there were probably no horses 
here when the white man arrived. 

History. The first horses celebrated in history to any 
great extent are the Arabian, a small, beautiful pony type 
found in the desert of Arabia. These horses were used as 
foundation stock for a number of breeds and had much to 
do with the molding of modern breeding. Horses of the 
Arab type, but coarser, were brought first to America from 
Spain and served as a foundation stock for our wild horses, 
Indian ponies and mustangs. 

There are many types and breeds of horses used now, 
varying in size from the tiny Shetland of 150 to 300 pounds 
to the great Shire or Percheron of 2,000 to 2,400 pounds, 
and ranging in speed from the swift running Thoroughbred 
to the slow drafter. 

Horses differ very much in weight, style, and speed; yet 
all can be judged in somewhat the same way. 

In general appearance a horse should be symmetrical, 
that is, about the same from ground to top of withers as 
from shoulder point to tail. The horse should show life, 
vigor and style by the way it carries the head, ear, and tail. 
A slouchy, listless appearance is detrimental. 

313 



314 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

Conformation. The head of a good horse is of fair size 
and bony in its appearance, with a straight face, a broad, 
full forehead, and large, bright eyes that show intelligence. 
The dished face, narrow forehead, and small, round eye are 
generally marks of a bad disposition. A good strong jaw is 
wanted, as it is the mark of a good feeder. The muzzle 
should be rather fine, but the nostrils large. The ears should 
be fairly fine, denoting quality, and neatly held, showing 
style. A lop ear is unsightly and generally indicates a slug- 
gish disposition. 

The neck should be long and well-arched, and clean-cut 
about the throat so as not to impair breathing. 

The shoulder should be so sloping that, when viewed 
from the side, the neck comes out on top of the body and not 
in front as in the straight-shouldered horse. The withers 
should be fine and fairly prominent in all breeds. 

The body of the horse should have a good big middle, 
with long, well-arched ribs and a low flank. Good depth 
and fair width are wanted in order to get the capacity for 
the vital organs. Slim-bellied horses lack endurance, being 
generally hard to keep in good condition, while the horse 
with a good middle and low flank, showing capacity, is 
generally easily maintained. The back should be straight; 
the loin, short, broad, and well-muscled. Stallions and geld- 
ings should be close-ribbed; that is, the last rib should be 
close to the point of the hip, making the loin strong. More 
length and roominess is wanted in mares. 

The hind quarter should be heavy and well-muscled; for 
a horse does most of the propelling with the hind parts. The 
croup should be long and straight, for this adds balance and 
gives more room for muscles. The tail should attach fairly 
high and be carried well out. The width should be carried 
down into the quarters, making the horse heavy through 
stifles and breech. The gaskin should be neatly turned, but 
heavily muscled. 



THE HORSE 315 

The legs are the most important parts of the horse. ''No 
foot, no horse" or ''no leg, no horse" are true statements. 
The front legs of the horse are straight when a plumb line 
dropped from the shoulder point passes through the center 
of the knee, cannon, and foot. When viewed from the side, 
a plumb line dropped from center of forearm should pass 
through the knee and cannon and drop back of the foot. A 
fairly long sloping pastern gives elasticity to the step, 
increasing wearing ability. The cannon should be wide and 
clean-cut and the knee deep and strong. 

The front feet should be large and round with an open 
heel and a good straight hoof. 

The hind leg, when viewed from the side, should be 
shaped so that a plumb line dropped from the point of the 
buttock should strike the back of the hock and drop parallel 
to the back of the cannon. This gives a strong leg that will 
withstand wear. If the leg is crooked, curby-hocked, as it 
is called, the conformation is weak. When viewed from be- 
hind, plumb lines dropped from the sides of the tail should 
bisect the hock, cannon, and foot. The hocks and feet are 
then the same distance apart. A wide, bony, clean-cut hock 
that is supported by a wide, strong cannon is desirable. 

Action is very important in all horses and should be care- 
fully considered. At the walk the horse should travel fast 
with a long, straight stride. At the trot the same straight 
action is wanted, but the horse should travel fast and fairly 
high. In draft horses the walk is the more important, 
while in light horses the trot deserves more consideration. 

TYPES AND BREEDS OF HORSES 
Four types of horses are recognized: (1) the saddle 

type, (2) the roadster type, (3) the carriage, or coach, type, 

and (4) the draft type. 

The Saddle Type. These vary from the small pony to 

the hunter in size, but are usually horses of quality, with 

action and nerve. 



31(j 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



The Arabian is a small but wiry pony whose native home 
is Arabia. In color it is generally bay, chestnut, gray, and 
white, with now and then a brown or black. Spotted, or 
pinto, horses are seldom if ever found among true Arabians. 




Figure 129 — Standard Bred trotter. 



Their influence on modern breeds is very marked, much of 
the speed and quality of our horses being due to this blood. 

The Thoroughbred is an English breed developed from 
the Arab and is the fastest horse. Thoroughbreds are most 
commonly bay and chestnut, and range in weight from 800 
to 1,150 pounds. On a straightway track Salvator ran a 



THE HORSE 



317 



mile in 1.353^, and on a circular track Dick Wells made 



the mile in 1.37|. 



The American saddle horse, a superior type of riding 
horse, developed in the United States from Thoroughbred 
ancestry, is a horse of considerable quality and finish, and is 




Figure 130. — Coach, or carriage, horse. 



variously gaited, having in addition to the regular walk, 
trot and canter, the rack and either the fox trot or running 
walk. Saddlers range from 900 to 1,150 pounds; the most 
common colors are bay, chestnut, and black. 

Another type of saddle horse is much used. He varies 
in type, and has but three gaits: walk, trot and canter. 

Mustang or Broncho. The wild horses of western America 
are of the saddle type. They rank in endurance and sta- 
mina with any horse known. The western horse, however, 



818 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



is not of mongrel blood; for his ancestors came from Spain 
and are of the hot-blooded races akin to the Arab. The 
greatest fault with the western pony is the lack of quality 
and finish and the small size. 




Figure 131. — An undefeated grand champion Percheron stallion. 



The Roadster Type. This is the light harness horse used 
for fast driving and racing. 

The American trotter, or pacer, or standard bred, the greatest 
hght harness horse known, was developed in America from 
Thoroughbred ancestry. This breed was founded by the 
great horse, Hambletonian, foaled in 1849. 

There is no distinct type, but the best of them are very 
symmetrical and stylish with quahty. 



THE HORSE 



319 



The record for a mile at the trot is 1 :58 held by Uhlan, 
and at the pace is 1 :55M held by Dan Patch. 

The Orloff trotter is a Russian breed that is larger than the 
American Type and not so fast. 



Figure 132. — A champion Shire staUion. 



The Coach, or Carriage, Type. This is the heavy-harness 
type used more with heavy carriages. Though showy when 
in action, they are not speedy. Because automobiles have 
replaced these horses, there is but a limited market for them. 

The Hackney is an English coach breed of remarkable 
smoothness and very high action. Hackneys vary in size 
from 1,150 to 1,250 pounds. The common colors are 
chestnuts, bays, and browns. 



320 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

French Coach, German Coach, and Cleveland Bay, are all breeds 
of this type, but are of no great importance in America. 

The Draft Type. This is seen in the big, slow-moving 
work horse. Drafters should weigh at least 1,600 to 2,400 
pounds. Size and weight are the prime requisites with these 
horses and to get it some quality and finish may be sacrificed. 




Figure 133. — A champion Clydesdale stallion. 

The Percheron, the most generally used draft horse in the 
United States, originated in France. In weight, Percherons 
range from 1,400 to 2,200 pounds. In colors, gray and black 
predominate, though chestnut, bay, brown and roan occa- 
sionally occur. They are remarkably smooth, and show 
quality and good action for drafters. Percherons mature 
early and have amiable dispositions, which make them 
generally liked. Crossed on common mares they give excel- 
lent results, which fact accounts for their popularity. 



THE HORSE 



321 



Shire horses, formerly called the English cart horse, orig- 
inated in the south of England. This is one of the oldest 
and largest breeds, weighing up to 2,400 pounds. Bays, 
browns, and blacks are the predominating colors, though 
chestnut is common, and gray and roan appear now and 




Figure 134. — Farceur, an undefeated grand champion and probably the most 
outstanding specimen of the Belgian breed in America. 



then. Shire horses are heavy boned and rather rough in 
their make-up, and do not mature as early as some of the 
other draft breeds. A Shire characteristic is the long hair 
or feather which is found from fetlock to knee and from 
fetlock to hock. 

Clydesdale horses originated in Scotland. They are, in 
color, the same as Shires, but they are a smaller breed, weigh- 
ing 1,600 to 2,200 pounds and having less of the feather on 
the legs, but have more slope to pasterns and better feet 

21— 



322 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



than almost any other draft breed, Clydesdales are very 
snappy actors, have wonderful feet and legs and are con- 
sidered good wearing horses when used on rough roads. 

The Belgian horse, originated in Belgium, is one of the 
largest of the draft breeds, individuals weighing up to 2,400 




Figure l'Si>. — A Suffolk Punch stallion. 



pounds. In color they are bay, chestnut, brown, or roan 
for the most part, though gray and black do appear. These 
horses are smoothly made hke the Percheron, but do not 
have quite the quahty. Belgians are becoming rather pop- 
ular in the United States. 

The Suffolk Punch is an English breed of draft horse, all 
of which are chestnut in color. This horse is rather smaller 
than the other draft breeds, weighing 1,500 to 1,900 pounds. 
The Suffolk is regarded as a very good farm horse, but as 
yet very few of them are being raised in this country. 



THE HORSE 



323 



STUDENTS' SCORE CARD 

DRAFT HORSES 



SCALE OF POINTS— FOR GELDING 



1. Age 

GENERAL APPEARANCE: 

2. Height 

3. Weight, over 1500 lbs score according to age 

4. Form, broad, massive, proportioned 

5. Quality, bone clean, fine, yet indicating sufl5cient substance; tendons 

lean; skin and hair fine 

6. Temperament, energetic, good disposition 

HEAD AND NECK: 

7. Head, lean, medium size 

8. Muzzle, fine, nostrils large, lips thin, even 

9. Eyes, full, bright, clear, large 

10. Forehead, broad, full 

11. Ears, medium size, well carried 

12. Neck, muscled, crest high, throatlatch fine, windpipe large 

FORE QUARTERS: 



13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 



21. 



Shoulders, sloping, smooth snug, extending into back 

Arm, short, thrown forward 

Forearm, heavily muscled, long, wide 

Knees, wide, clean cut, straight, deep, strongly supported 

Cannons, short, lean; sinews large, set back 

Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong 

Pasterns, sloping, lengthy, strong 

Feet, large, even size, straight; horn dense, dark color; sole con- 
cave; bars strong; frog large, elastic; heel wide, high, one half 
length of toe 

Legs, viewed in front, a perpendicular line from the point of the 
shoulder should fall upon the center of the knee, cannon, pastern 
and foot. From the side, a perpendicular fine dropping from 
the center of the elbow joint should fall upon the center of the 
knee and pastern joints and back of hoof 

BODY: 

22. Chest, deep, wide, low, large girth 

23. Ribs, long, close, sprung 

24. Back, straight, short, broad 

25. Loin, wide, short, thick; straight 

26. Underline, flank low 

HINDQUARTERS: 

27. Hips, smooth, wide 

28. Croup, long, wide, muscular 

Tail, attached high, well carried 

Thighs, muscular 

Quarters, deep, heavily muscled 

Gaskins or Lower Thighs, wide, muscled 

Hocks, clean cut, wide, straight 

Cannons, short, wide, sinews large, set back 

Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong 

Pasterns, sloping, strong, lengthy 

Feet, large, even size, straight; horn dense, dark color; sole con- 
cave; bars strong; frog large, elastic; heel wide, high, one half 
length of toe 

38. Legs, viewed from behind a perpendicular line from the point of 

the buttock should fall upon the center of the hock, cannon, 

Eastern and foot. From the side, a perpendicular line from the 
ip joint should fall upon the center of the foot and divide the 
gaskin in the middle; and a perpendicular Hne from the point 
of the buttock should run parallel with the line of the cannon . . . 
ACTION: 

39. Walk, smooth, quick, long balanced 

40. Trot, rapid, straight, regular 



29. 
30. 
31. 
32. 
33. 
34. 
35. 
36. 
37. 



TOTAL 100 



Score 



324 WE8TERN AGRICULTURE 



STUDENTS' SCORE CARD 

LIGHT HORSES 



SCALE OF POINTS— FOR GELDING 



1 . Age 

GENERAL APPEARANCE: 

2. Weight 

3. Height 

4. Form, symmetrical, smooth, stylish 

[ 5. Quality, bone clean, fine, yet indicating sufficient substance; tendons 

defined ; skin and hair fine 

6. Temperament, active, good position 

HEAD AND NECK: 

7. Head, lean, straight 

8. Muzzle, fine, nostrils large, lips thin, even 

9. Eyes, full, bright, clear, large 

10. Forehead, broad, full 

11. Ears, medium size, pointed, well carried not far apart 

12. Neck, muscled, crest high, throatlatch fine, windpipe large 

FOREQUARTERS: 

13. Shoulders, long, smooth, with muscle, oblique, extending into back 

and muscled at withers 

14. Arm, short, thrown forward 

15. Forearm, muscled, long, wide 

f 16. Knees, clean, wide, straight, deep, strongly supported 

17. Cannons, short, wide; sinews large, set back 

18. Fetlocks, wide, straight 

19. Pasterns, strong, angle with ground 45° 

20. Feet, medium, even size, straight; horn dense, frog large, elastic; 

bars strong; sole concave; heel wide, high 

21. Legs, viewed in front, a perpendicular line from the point of the 

shoulder should fall upon the center of the knee, cannon pastern and 
foot. From the side, a perpendicular line dropping from the 
center of the elbow joint should fall upon the center of the 
knee and pastern joints and back of hoof 

BODY: 

22. Chest, deep, wide, low, large girth 

23. Ribs, long, close, sprung 

24. Back, straight, short, broad, muscled 

25. Loin, wide, short, thick 

26. Underline, long; flank let down 

HINDQUARTERS: 

27. Hips, smooth, wide, level 

28. Croup, long, wide, muscular 

29. Tail, attached high, well carried 

30. Thighs, long, muscular, spread, open angled 

31. Quarters, heavily muscled, deep 

32. Gaskins or Lower Thighs, long, wide, muscled 

33. Hocks, clearly defined, wide, straight 

34. Cannons, short, wide, sinews large, set back 

35. Fetlocks, wide, strong 

36. Pasterns, sloping, strong .• • 

37. Feet, medium, even size, straight; horn dense, frog large, elastic; 

bars strong; sole concave; heel wide, high. 

38. Legs, viewed from behind a perpendicular line from the point of 

the buttock should fall upon the center of the hock, cannon, 
pastern and foot. From the side, a perpendicular line from the 
hip joint should fall upon the center of the foot and divide the 
gaskin in the middle; and a perpendicular line from the point 
of the buttock should run parallel with the line of the cannon . . 
ACTION: 

39. Walk, elastic, quick, balanced 

40. Trot, rapid, straight, regular, high 



TOTAL 100 



THE HORSE 325 



QUESTIONS 



1. Describe ancient horses. 

2. Give the history of our horses. 

3. Describe the parts of a good horse. 

4. Name and differentiate the types of horses. 

5. Name and describe the breeds of horses. 

6. Why do the legs and feet of a horse deserve so much attention? 

7. What is quahty in a horse? 

8. How valuable is weight on a draft horse? 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. Collect pictures of the breeds of horses. 

2. Collect prices on various kinds of horses. 

3. Visit one or more farms on which are kept some pure bred horses. 

Observe color, general shape, size and shape of feet and legs, 
the fineness and length of hair, color and length of mane and 
tail, and the friendliness suggested in the head and eye. 

4. If convenient, try scoring according to score card. 

REFERENCES 

Productive Horse Husbandry, Gay. 

The Horse, Johnston. 

Studies in Horse Breeding, Carlson. 

The Horse, Roberts. 

Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, Plumb. 

Beginnings in Animal Husbandry, Plumb. 

Animal Husbandry for Schools, Harper. 

Farmers' Bulletins: 

No. 179. Horseshoeing. 

619. Breeds of Draft Horses. 

667. Colts: Breaking and Training. 

779. How to Select a Sound Horse. 

Department Bulletin No. 487. Judging Horses as a Subject 
of Instruction in Secondary Schools. 



CHAPTER XXXIX 
THE HOG 



The hog is the most lowly of farm animals, but gains 
favor from the fact that it is one of the most profitable, being 
called the ''mortgage lifter of the farm." 




Figure 136. — A good type Berkshire. 



THE LARD TYPE 



The lard-type hog is a low-set, blocky pig with consid- 
erable width of back and depth of rib. These are the com- 
mon hogs of the corn belt and form about nine tenths of 
all hogs sent to the big markets. This type of pig should 
have a rather short fine head, with good width between the 
eyes, fine ears, and a light jowl. The neck should be short 
and full; the shoulders, though wide and deep, should be 
long and well-arched and of an even width, carried out well 
to the tail. Good width and depth of chest is liked, as it 
shows constitution, and the sides should be deep and long. 

326 



THE HOG 327 

The ham should be heavily fleshed, deep and plump, extend- 
ing down to the hock. The feet and legs in lard-type pigs 
are important, especially those retained for breeding pur- 
poses. Plenty of bone, straight pasterns, and good feet are 
desirable to bear up weight. Straight fine hair is liked on 
hogs, as it is an indication of quality. 

Breeds. The Berkshire, an English breed, is one of the 
oldest breeds and is most generally raised in the United 




Figure 137. — A Poland China sow. 

States. Berkshires are black with usually six white points: 
face, feet, and tip of tail. The distinguishing characteristics 
of the Berkshires are the upright ears and a dished face, 
with a short, sometimes upturned, nose. 

As boars weigh up to 700 pounds and sows up to 500 
pounds, the Berkshires are a rather large breed. Being pro- 
Ufic and good mothers, they are regarded as very good breed- 
ers. As killers the Berkshires rank high, for they produce 
a superior meat, there being considerable lean in propor- 
tion to fat. 

Poland China hogs originated in the United States and 
are a typical lard-type breed. Polands are black with six 
white points but have a rather short body, a straight face, 



328 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

and drooping ears. Poland Chinas rank medium to large, 
boars weighing on an average of about 600 pounds and sows 
about 500 pounds. The Poland breed has been criticised 
because there is a tendency for them to be poor breeders. 
To avoid this sows should be selected that have long bodies 
and are open between hips and ribs. 

The Duroc Jersey is a red American breed that is in 
general of the same type as the Poland China. Duroc Jer- 




Figure 138. — A Duroc Jersey sow. 

seys are cherry red in color, have a straight face and droop- 
ing ears. In size the Duroc is large, boars weighing up to 
600 pounds and sows up to 450 pounds. They are very 
prolific and are good mothers, this being an important point 
in their favor. 

Chester White pigs originated in the United States and 
are quite popular in the Middle West. This breed of white 
hogs is typical of the lard-type, have a straight or slightly 
dished face and drooping ears. In size the Chester Whites 
are large, boars weighing up to 650 pounds and sows to 450 
pounds. Chesters are very prolific and usually raise big 



THE HOG 329 

litters. There is an objection to white hogs in the hot, dry 
climate of the West, as they are likely to sun scald and bhs- 
ter. Where plenty of shade is provided white hogs do well 
and grow rapidly. 

THE BACON TYPE 

The bacon-type hogs are in general longer-bodied, nar- 
rower, and stand up higher on their legs than the lard type. 




Figure 139. — A Chester White sow. 

In the bacon type the head is rather long, the jowl light, 
the neck medium in length, and the shoulders rather neat. 
The back is narrow but of uniform width and should be 
strongly arched and carried out well to tail-head. The 
sides, the region from which the bacon is cut, should be 
long and deep, and the ham, long though not so plump as 
in the lard type. 

Breeds. The Large Yorkshire is a white English breed 
of bacon hogs that is very popular in Canada, but is found 
in only limited numbers in the United States. Yorkshire 
swine are very large, weighing up to 700 pounds and are 
good breeders. The Yorkshire and Chester White breeds 



330 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



are not hard to distinguish, because the Yorkshire has an 
upright ear and a dished face. 

The Tamworth is a red Enghsh breed that has found 
some favor in the West, especially in Utah. This is a large 
breed, boars often weighing 700 pounds and sows 500 pounds. 
Tamworth hogs are prolific and are good mothers, but are 




Figure 140. — A Yorkshire sow. 

a little slow in maturing. This breed has a very long, straight 
snout and upright ears. 

The Hampshire breed, formerly called the Thin Rined, 
is another English bacon breed as yet little known in the 
West. Hampshires are a black and white breed, the white 
being in the form of a belt extending around the shoulders 
and front legs. Hampshires are now one of the most im- 
portant breeds in the corn belt. The breed has lost some 
of its bacon type and is regarded by many as a lard type. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Name and describe the types of hogs. 

2. Name and describe the breeds belonging to the lard type. 

3. Name and describe the breeds belonging to the bacon type. 



THE HOG 331 



EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. Collect pictures of breeds of swine. 

2. Collect prices for live hogs, dressed hogs, and ham, lard, and bacon. 

3. Examine one or more breeds of hogs. Note color, shape, size, 

and any peculiarities of breed. 

4. Practice scoring by score card. 



Figure 141. — A Tamworth sow. 

STUDENTS' SCORE CARD 
FAT HOGS 



SCALE OF POINTS FOR FAT HOGS 



1. Weight, score according to age • 

2. Form, deep, broad, low, compact, symmetrical; standmg squarely 

3. Finish, smooth, deep, even, mellow covering throughout; free from 

wrinkles, creases and lumps ■ 

4. Quality, hair fine; bone fine; smooth and refined in general appear- 

5. Head, face short and broad; snout of medium length and not 

coarse; eyes full and bright; ears fine and of medium size 

6. Neck, short, thick and full; jowl broad, full and firm 

7 Shoulders, broad deep, full, smooth and compact on top 

8. Back, broad, smooth, slightly arched and thickly covered 

9. Loin, wide, thick and smooth 

10. Chest, deep and broad ,■ • • ;, 

11. Sides, deep, smooth, thick and full; ribs close and well sprung 

12. Belly, straight, smooth and firm 

13. Flanks, full and deep 

14. Hips, wide apart and smooth 

15. Rump, long, wide, level and well covered 

16. Hams, smooth, full, wide, deep and firm •■ u ' i 

17. Legs, short, straight, strong, and wide apart; pasterns straight and 

feet of medium size 



TOTAL. 



Score 



4 
10 
10 

8 

3 

3 

6 

10 

10 

2 

8 

2 

2 

2 

6 

10 

4 



100 



332 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

REFERENCES 

Productive Swine Husbandry, Day. 

Swine, Dietrich. 

The Hog Book, Dawson. 

Swine in America, Coburn. 

Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, Plumb. 

Beginnings in Animal Husbandry, Plumb. 

Animal Husbandry for Schools, Harper. 

Feeds and Feeding, Henry and Morrison. 

Farmers' Bulletins: 

No. 205. Pig Management. 

272. A Successful Hog and Seed Corn Farm. 

374. Hog Cholera. 

566. Boys' Pig Club. 

874. Swine Management. 

913. Killing Hogs and Curing Pork. 

Department Bulletin No. 646. Lessons on Pork -Production 
for Elementary Rural Schools. 



CHAPTER XL 

SHEEP MANAGEMENT 

The mountainous area in the western states cuts down 
the ratio of tillable land to the grazing area, and indicates 
that the sheep business in these sections will continue largely 




Figure 142.— First-prize yearling Shropshires. 

under range conditions. The greatest immediate develop- 
ment in the industry, however, seems likely to be the estab- 
lishment and keeping of small flocks on the farms. 

Care and Food. Under favorable conditions and with 
good management, sheep may prove one of the most profit- 
able animals to keep on the ordinary farm. Their care 
involves comparatively little labor, especially during the 
busy summer and fall months. Few buildings and httle 
equipment are necessary to start and the cost of maintaining 
a flock is smaller than for most classes of live stock. A ewe's 
fleece is supposed to pay about the cost of her keep during 
the year, leaving whatever she produces in lambs and her 
own carcass as profit. Sheep manure is the most valuable 
farm manure produced except that from poultry. 

333 



834 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



No other class of farm animals is equal to sheep as weed 
destroyers. They will eat practically all the numerous 
weeds that grow on the farm, thus keeping down many waste 
places that would otherwise prove great nuisances in pro- 
ducing and scattering weed seeds. A Kansas farmer was 
once asked what he did to keeD the weeds down on his farm 




Figure 143. — Cotswold ewes on pasture. 

and he replied that he sold most of them as mutton for five 
and six cents a pound. In fact, sheep are such good weed 
destroyers that they have been called farm scavengers. For 
greatest profit, however, they can not be left to weeds alone 
the whole year. 

Breed to Select. The breed of sheep to select for the 
farm flock will depend upon the relative market value of 
mutton and wool. Under normal conditions one of the 
standard mutton breeds will be found best suited to the 
average farm. Breeds of mutton sheep may be divided into 
two classes, (1) medium- wool and (2) long-wool breeds. Of 
the medium-wool breeds the Southdown, Shropshire, Cheviot, 



SHEEP MANAGEMENT 



335 



and Tunis are in size smaller than the Oxford Down, Hamp- 
shire Down, and Suffolk Down. The long-wool breeds are 
all rather large. They are the Leicester (pronounced Lester'^ , 
the Cotswold, and the Lincohi. The Rambouillet is a fii.o- 




Figure 144. — Champion Southdown ewe. 



wool breed. Choice among the breeds named is largely a 
matter of individual preference. 

Conformation. No matter which of the above breeds 
is selected the form or type of animal will be much the same. 
It should be low-set, square and blocky, straight of topline 
and underline; should possess vigor and vitality as indicated 
by a short, broad head, large nostrils, and a clear full eye. 
It should have a short, thick neck, wide, deep chest, broad, 
level shoulders, smooth and thickly covered on top, and a 
muscular forearm. A broad, straight back with ribs sprung 



336 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



wide from the backbone and thickly covered with flesh, a 
broad, thick loin, a long, level, broad rump, a deep, full 
twist, and a heavily muscled leg of mutton are all essential 
to a good mutton form. The legs should be short and 
straight, with bone dense and large though not to the point 




Figure 145. — An aged Shropshire ram. 



of coarseness. The flesh should be firm and evenly placed 
all over the body; the skin should be moist, thin, flexible, 
and pink except in the dark skinned breeds; the fleece should 
be long, fine, dense in some breeds, bright, even, and uniform 
of crimp, and should carry plenty of yolk, or oil, which keeps 
the wool soft. 

Breeding. On the average farm, grade ewes will per- 
haps prove just as profitable as pure breds. The ram, how- 



SHEEP MANAGEMENT 337 

ever, should without question be a pure bred, registered 
animal of the best form and breeding. 

The breeding ram should have access to all the good 
alfalfa or clover hay he will consume and enough grain to 
keep him thrifty and vigorous. 




Figure 146. — A Cheviot ram. 

Ewes should be bred to lamb any time after the middle of 
March depending upon the severity of spring weather and 
upon the shelter afforded by the lambing quarters. 

Lambing requires the presence of the shepherd both day 
and night. If proper care has been given the flock during 
the winter, the majority of the lambs will be strong and vigor- 
ous. Occasionally a ewe will need assistance or the lamb 
may need to be helped to its first meal. Many lambs have 
been saved by being held up long enough to get a fill of warm 
milk. As the lambs come each ewe and her lamb should be 

22— 



338 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



put by themselves for a day or two to avoid danger of the 
lamb's becoming lost from its mother or injured by the other 
sheep. This can be done by either building in small per- 




Figure 147. — A champion Oxford ram. 



manent lambing pens, or by making, in one end of the 
lambing quarters, temporary stalls of small hinged hurdles. 

Spring Care. It may be necessary in the early spring, 
while the ewes are milking heavily and before the pasturage 
is very abundant, to give the ewes a little grain. The flocks 
should be changed to a fresh pasture about once a month dur- 
ing the summer to prevent their becoming infected with 
stomach worms and other parasites. 

Summer Care. Plenty of good upland pasture is about 
the only feed necessary for the flock during the summer. 
Low, damp pastures or damp quarters of any kind are a 
menace to sheep. Since sheep enjoy some browsing, a 



SHEEP MANAGEMENT 



339 



pasture containing some shrubs or low trees is so much the 
better. A pasture should have at least enough trees and 
brush to supply abundant shade. Pure, fresh water and salt 
are necessary in order that the flock may thrive. If pas- 
tures are short, they may be supplemented by planting small 




Figure 148. — A Hampshire ewe. 

areas of various crops such as rye, barley, oats and peas, or 
rape (rape is highly recommended for this purpose) that the 
sheep may pasture off. 

Feeding Lambs. At the age of one or two weeks the 
lambs will begin nibbling at their mother's feed. Now is a 
good time to provide a little extra grain for them where the 
ewes cannot get at it. This is conveniently done by making 
a lamb creep in one corner of the barn. This consists of a 
slat fence with the slats far enough apart to permit the lambs 
to pass between and yet close enough to keep out the ewes. 



340 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

A trough in which grain is kept is placed behind the creep. 
One of the most satisfactory grain mixtures for lambs, under 
western conditions, is composed of one or two parts of bran 
to one part of oats, crushed oats preferred. A little finely- 
ground corn or barley meal may be added occasionally for 




Figure 1 49. — Leicester yearling ewe. 

variety. A few roots, if they can be kept this late, are 
relished by the lambs. 

Winter Care. While elaborate and costly buildings are 
not necessary for sheep, provision should be made to keep 
them dry above and under foot, and to prevent their 
lying in draughts. Warm quarters, however, are not neces- 
sary, as the sheep's coat is ample protection against cold. 
Plenty of room in which to exercise should be provided for 
the flock and the quarters should admit as much sunshine, 
light, and fresh air as possible. A good deep shed, open to 



SHEEP MANAGEMENT 341 

the south, built on a well drained spot, is about as profitable 
a building as can be made for wintering the flock. 

Care of Ewes. If good alfalfa hay is available, httle 
else need be fed to the breeding flock except that during the 



f 




■i 


IK 








^. M^ja^^^*"-*!*^* 


1 




b;^ 




■Hi 


■H 




1 




1 




'^^hI^^H 



Figure 150. — A typical Lincoln ewe. 

winter a few roots make a valuable addition to the ration. 
This statement may seem strange, but the flock of breeding 
ewes at the Utah Agricultural College repeatedly winters 
on nothing but alfalfa with sometimes the addition of a few 
roots, and comes out in good condition in the spring. Wild 
and timothy hays have no place in sheep feeding. If some 
of the ewes are thin as they approach the time of lambing, 
it is well to give them a small allowance of grain. A mixture 
of oats and bran is as good as anything. 

Shearing should be done in the spring as soon as warm 
weather sets in. This time will usually be long enough after 



342 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



lambing to avoid harm either to the ewe or the lamb. If 
postponed till the weather gets hot, the sheep become very 
uncomfortable in their warm coats and lose flesh rapidly. 
Dipping sheep is found to be beneficial from two stand- 
points; first, it destroys lice, ticks, scab, and other parasites 




Figure 151. — A good specimen of the Rambouillet. 



which worry sheep, and cause much waste in lack of growth; 
and, second, it promotes the health of the skin and furthers 
the growth of wool. To kill parasites, dipping carefully 
once a year is sufficient, but some flocks are dipped twice a 
year for the benefit of the wool. 

The best time to dip is shortly after shearing. The wool 
is then short and consequently less dip is necessary. The 
dip is surer to get down to the skin, and less time is required 
for the sheep to drain and dry , lessening the danger from colds. 



SHEEP MANAGEMENT 



343 




Dipping should be done in the forenoon of a warm sunny 
day, thus allowing time for the fleeces to dry out before night. 
The dip should be warm (about 95 degrees F.) in order that 
it may penetrate the wool well and not chill the sheep. The 
sheep should be wet 
all over at least once 
and be kept in the 
dip about two 
minutes. 

There are several 
kinds of dips that 
may be used success- 
fully. Chief among 
these are lime and 
sulphur, tobacco 
dips and coal tar dips. 

Dipping Plant. The kind and size of dipping plant will 
depend upon the size of the flock. If space and money per- 
mit and the size of the flock justifies it, a permanent plant 
may be put in, consisting of corrals, a chute, a concrete vat 
about 30 feet long heated by steam coils, and a draining pen 
arranged to return the dip to the vat as it runs off the sheep. 
A cheaper plant that is used successfully on many farms, 
though less convenient than the one mentioned above, con- 
sists of a corral made of hurdles, a plank walk leading to the 
vat, a galvanized iron vat, and a draining pen. All except 
the draining pen may be made movable, allowing them to 
be put out of the way when not in use. 



Figure 152. — Movable pen made of hurdles used in 
connection with dipping plant. 



QUESTIONS 

1. Give three points in favor of keeping sheep on the farm. 

2. What factors will govern the selection of the breed of sheep to 

keep on the farm? 

3. Describe in some detail mutton form in sheep. 

4. What care should be given the breeding ram? 

5. What special care is necessary at lambing time? 



344 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

6. How can lambs be given grain when the ewes are not being grain 

fed? Why should this be done? 

7. Outline a winter ration for breeding ewes. 

8. Of what value is dipping sheep? 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. If near a shearing corral, weigh individual fleeces as they come 
from the shearer. Note age and breed of sheep and date of last 
shearing. Measure the length of the wool, and observe its 
fineness, strength, quality and amount of dirt and grease. 

REFERENCES 

Sheep Farming, Craig. 

Sheep in America, Wing. 

Sheep Management, Kleinheinz. 

Western Grazing Grounds and Forest Ranges, Barnes. 

Beginnings in Animal Husbandry, Plumb. 

Animal Husbandry for Schools, Harper. 

Modern Sheep, The Shepherd Boy. 

The Breeds of Live Stock, Gay. 

Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, Plumb. 

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. III. 

Sheep Managenr ent, Doane. 

Farmers' Bulletms: 

No. 576. Breeds of Sheep for the Farm. 

652. The Sheep Industry as Menaced by the Dog. 

713. Sheep Scab. 

718. Co-operative Live Stock Shipping Associations. 

720. Prevention of Losses of Live Stock from Plant Poi- 
soning. 

798. The Sheep Tick. 

810. Equipment for Farm Sheep Raising. 

840. Farm Sheep Raising for Beginners. 



CHAPTER XLI 
POULTRY 

The poultry industry of the United States has increased 
enormously in the past ten years, yet the price of eggs and of 
market fowls has nearly doubled during this time. The 
present value of this product exceeds that of many of the 
other farm crops. The size of the flocks varies from half a 
dozen hens, kept in a back yard or city lot, to twenty or 
twenty-five thousand hens on some of the large commercial 
farms, the average Utah flock being only forty hens. Poul- 
try production may be in combination with various other 
crops or it may be special business. As a rule the fowls are 
most profitable when kept in small flocks on the general 
farm. The commercial poultry man produces only about 
ten per cent of the output of the United States. 

In the poultry business it is a good plan to start with a 
small number; perhaps in the spring a setting of eggs, or a 
dozen baby chicks; or starting in the fafl, with puflets or 
older hens, would be best for one who has had but little 
experience. Some knowledge of their care may be gained 
before the hatching and rearing season is on. 

Little time is lost before the eggs or meat is ready for 
market. Very quick returns are received from the money 
invested. Many cases might be cited where the net value 
of the eggs produced by a flock of fowls by the time they 
were one year old was more than the entire cost of feed and 
house and original cost of the fowls themselves. 

- ; Choice of Breeds. There is considerably more satisfac- 
tion and greater opportunities in breeding pure-bred fowls 
than the ordinary mongrel stock. It makes little difference 
which of the popular breeds a person selects, provided that 

345 



346 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 




Figure 153. — Single-comb White Leghorns. 

the fowls are hardy, from a good strain and adapted to the 
condition and purpose for which they are kept. It could 
not be regarded as good judgment to start a flock, the special 
object being to produce soft roasters, with one of the small 
nervous and very active breeds; nor in the egg business, with 
the very large clumsy slow-matilring breeds. For conven- 
ience, the different breeds are grouped into (1) egg breeds, 
(2) meat breeds, (3) general-purpose breeds, and .(4) fancy 




Figure 154. — Light Brahmas. 



POULTRY 



347 




Figure 155. — White Plymouth Rocks. 

breeds. No two breeds have the same characteristics, but 
there is a general blending of these useful qualities from one 
extreme to the other. 

The Egg Breeds. This group includes all the small, 
nervous, active, less reliable sitting breeds that usually do 
not take on flesh readily and are rather hard to confine. 




Figure 156. — Barred Plymouth Rocks. 



348 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 




Figure 157. — White Wyandottea 

Too often, when supplied with a setting of good eggs, they 
leave the nest before time for the chicks to hatch, or make 
very poor mothers after the chicks are hatched. They are 
excellent foragers and will range over considerable territory 
if given the opportunity to do so, yet will do fairly well in 
close confinement. They are usually hardy and develop 
very rapidly. Pullets often begin laying when only four 
and a half or five months old. The Leghorn, Minorca, 




Figure 158. — Silver Wyandottes. 



POULTRY 



349 




Figure 159. — Single-comb Rhode Island Reds. 

Hamburg, Spanish, Ancona and Andalusian are the most 
common fowls of this group. Of the many varieties of these 
breeds the Single-comb White Leghorn is the most popular 
especially on the large commercial egg farms. 

The meat breeds are large, awkward in their movements, 
sluggish, easily confined, persistent sitters, and poor for- 
agers. They are gentle, easily handled, and take on flesh 
readily, yet mature rather slowly. One of the problems in 




Figure 160. — White Orpingtons 



350 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



the management of these fowls is to keep them from gettmg 
too fat for good egg production. They are of Asiatic origin 
and have feathered legs. 

The Brahma is the largest and most popular breed of this 
group. Since Cochins are usually weak and of low vitality 




Figure 161. 



-The hen is an efficient machine for transforming raw food into a very 
highly nutritious product. 



and have little economic value, the Langshan is the only 
other breed of this group that is usually regarded as having 
much utility value. 

The General-Purpose Breeds. In America and England 
these two extremes have been brought together, and through 
crossbreeding and careful selection a number of breeds have 
been developed, having many of the desirable characters of 
each. The general-purpose fowls .are gentle when properly 
handled, make good sitters, excellent mothers, and good 
foragers, and yet are easily confined. When skillfully man- 
aged they lay well or will take on flesh readily. Of the 
American breeds, the Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, and 
Rhode Island Reds are the best farm fowls. The most 
popular English breed of this group is the Orpington. 

The Fancy Breeds. In this group are classed those fowls 
having little or no utility value, such as the Games and Ban- 



POULTRY 



351 




Figure 162. — Showing the framework of a 
movable gable-roof colony house. This 
type of house is not as easy to ventilate as 
the shed-roof house. 



tarns and many other 
fowls known for some 
peculiarity. 

Location and Housing. 
A dry, well-drained sandy 
or clay loam with a south 
exposure is best for the 
location of the poultry 
house. This soil warms 
up early in the spring, 
produces an early supply 



of green food for the fowls, and does away with the necessity 
of floors in the houses. Wet or damp conditions within the 
house not only greatly reduce the disease-resisting power of 
the fowls and afford a favorable environment for some of 
the worst diseases and enemies; but a large percentage of 
the eggs produced are smeared with filth from the feet of 
the hens. 

An abundant supply of fresh air without draughts is 
very important; yet the house must afford protection from 
the severe freezing weather. Cold, pure air is better than 
warm, impure air; yet it is the fresh air and not the low tem- 
perature that is desired. The shed-roof house with the open 
or curtain front is most common. With this type of house the 
other three sides must be tight during cold weather to pre- 
vent draughts. A curtain of thin muslin is commonly used 
to cover the opening during 
the cold nights. This is raised 
during the day to admit the 
rays of the sun which aid great- 
ly in keeping the interior dry. 

Feeds and Feeding. When 
properly managed there is lit- 
tle or no danger of overfeeding Figure les— The shed-roof house with 
the laying hen. Lack of the SSh?'°"^" '"^ ''"'''''"" 




352 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 




M! i 



CROSS- SECT/Of^. 



{Summer ^^venfi/afd'rs \\pRaffers—^—^^ 



• //7/7er-//n/n^ of matched boarc/s 
aboi^e t>/7^ af" Me bach of perches 



A/ote that dropp/n^ boards are madQ 
//? two secf/o/7S and are remot^ab/e.-^ 



Perc/jes~ 




fv^''" 



p= 




SECT/ON rmOl/GH A/fSTS. 



r-ffrapfling 



nq board 



\\L Loose nail i or p//73~. ^ 
"^ > of foundafio * 

Supporf- 2'n2^ 



I (--Top of foundation 
V\ Supporf 2'. 



/a ^ Entrance. 



OiTAJLS of DUST-BOX UETAILS of NSSTS 

Figure 164, — Showing in detail the interior of a well-arranged poultry house. 



POULTRY 353 

proper amount and variety of feed shows first in decreased 
egg production. If only sufficient feed is given to maintain 
the body functions, there will be no eggs produced. The 
number of eggs laid is often determined by the amount and 
kind of food available. When fed correctly, all food above 



U- •■ ^^ T ^ 



Figure 1G5. — Poultry colony house 

the amount required to keep up the body is manufactured 
into eggs with no increase in the weight of the fowl. 

Fowls running on the farm with little or no attention will 
lay a large number of eggs during the spring months. The 
feeds of this season indicates in a general way what is neces- 
sary for egg production. The industrious hen will find seeds 
of all kinds in various stages of sprouting, also insects and 
worms, and young tender grasses and roots. During the 
fall and winter a good ration would contain a scratching 
feed and mash as follows: 
Scratching Feed Mash 

Wheat 60 parts Bran 100 parts Chopped barley 50 parts 

Corn 20 parts Shorts 100 parts Chopped alfalfa 10 parts 

Oats 10 parts Chopped corn 50 parts Beef scraps 50 parts 

Whole grains should be scattered in a deep litter of straw, 
morning and night. Dry mash should be kept in the hoppers 
at all times, and a feed of mash moistened with buttermilk 

23— 



354 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

fed at noon. Fresh water, crushed oyster-shell, coarse sand 
and sugar beets, or other succulent feeds, ought to be avail- 
able at all times. A limited amount of ground green-bone 
fed three or four times a week will increase the amount of 
protein. Since this food spoils readily in warm weather, it 
is used only during the winter. 

There is a very high percentage of protein in eggs. A 
hen in heavy laying condition is not able to use the vegetable 
protein as an entire source of supply for this part of the egg. 
Some animal food, such as insects, skimmed milk, butter- 
milk, or meat scraps, to supply this, must be included as a 
part of the ration. 

Green and succulent feeds, such as alfalfa chopped fine 
or ground, are very good. Clover or any of the legumes 
are good if not too old and woody. Sugar beets and mangel 
wurzels are the best of the root crops for winter feeding. 
The whole beet may be hung on a nail to allow the fowls to 
pick at it and eat as they choose, or it may be chopped fine 
and fed in the mash. Stimulants, such as peppers, mustard, 
etc., are good to tone up the digestive system when the fowls 
are run down, or weakened, but there is great danger in 
their continued or excessive feeding. 

Incubation and Brooding. Eggs, when laid by good 
vigorous hens running with a good cock, furnish all that is 
necessary for a young chick, except the proper temperature. 
The apphcation of this heat under favorable conditions is 
commonly called incubation. There are two ways of hatch- 
ing chicks, — by the natural process with the broody hen or 
artificially with an incubator. In either case success depends 
on the vitality and constitutional vigor of breeding fowls, 
together with the conditions under which the eggs are kept 
and the process of incubation. Eggs for hatching should 
be kept in a clean place where the temperature does not go 
above 60 degrees or below 40 degrees and should not be more 
than ten or twelve days old. 



POULTRY 355 

Natural Incuhalion. The selection of the hen and the 
construction of the nest are the most important factors in 
natural incubation. A hen from one of the general purpose 
breeds, in a quiet secluded nest away from the other fowls, 
and dusted thoroughly with a good lice powder, will do well. 
Make a good roomy nest in the place selected. Move the 
broody hen to this nest at night. China eggs or unhatched 
eggs of other hens can be used for two or three days to see if 
she will accept the nest made for her. If she does, fresh 
eggs may be put under her. Whole wheat and corn, fresh 
water, and grit, comprise a good daily ration. If the nest 
is made in a box or up off the ground, four or five inches of 
damp soil or an inverted sod should be placed in the bottom 
and the nest material on top of this so as to prevent too much 
evaporation from the eggs. If three or four hens are set 
at the same time, the eggs may be tested by holding them 
before a strong light on the sixth or seventh day and 
enough infertile eggs taken out to permit one hen to be 
reset on fresh eggs. 

Artificial Incubation. The incubator has made possible 
the large central hatchery and the large commercial poultry 
farms. A good incubator requires little time and attention 
to operate it. When once set and adjusted it regulates itself. 
There are, however, poor incubators manufactured that 
require almost constant attention and are often a failure. 
The regulation of the heat and the control of the ventilation 
and moisture supply are the important functions of a good 
machine. There are two systems of heating, hot air and hot 
water. There are good and bad machines of both kinds. 
Each system has its advocates and some companies make 
both machines, that the operators may have a choice. In 
general, the best plan is to follow in detail the instructions 
of the manufacturers. For the climatic conditions of Utah 
more moisture and less ventilation than in the more humid 
sections give better results. 



356 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

Artificial Brooding. A good brooder is simple in con- 
struction and easily operated. All parts of the brooder 
should be easy to clean and should have no dark corners. 
A fireless brooder, when well-made and properly managed, 
gives good results under dry conditions. Freedom from 
moisture in the brooder is very essential to the successful 
rearing of chicks. Plenty of clean chopped straw, chaff, or 
other absorbent litter is needed in the brooder. 

Chicks ought not to be fed until they are about forty- 
eight hours old. The first feed should be easily seen and 
nutritious. Bread and milk, hard-boiled eggs, bran, chopped 
wheat and corn, rolled oats with hulls removed, grit and 
lawn clippings or chopped alfalfa are all good. Feed often 
but sparingly the first few days. Mushy or wet feeds are 
undesirable, while an abundance of fresh water is essential. 
As much free, shady range as possible is advantageous. 

Marketing. The annual loss in the handling and market- 
ing of eggs in the United States is estimated at $45,000,000, 
much of which is due to poor methods used on the farm. 
One third of this loss is due directly to germ development 
called blood rings or heated eggs. This may be overcome by 
removing the male birds from the flock as soon as the hatch- 
ing season is over, thus producing infertile eggs. Eggs should 
be gathered twice daily during the summer, put in a cool 
dry place, and marketed at least once a week. Small, 
cracked, or soiled eggs may be used at home while fresh. 
Grading the eggs into lots of uniform size, color, and shape 
will increase their value in the market. 

The method of killing and dressing has much to do with 
the price and keeping qualities of fowls. They should not 
have feed of any kind for twenty-four hours before they are 
killed. All fowls should be marketed undrawn unless the 
market demands drawn fowls. They should be bled by 
cutting the arteries in the upper part of the mouth, well back 
in the throat, and then brained with the same knife by run- 



POULTRY 357 

ning it through the roof of the mouth on the median Unes 
just back of the eyes. If the feathers are then plucked 
immediately they will come out easily without tearing the 
skin. Fowls thus killed and dressed, and packed dry without 
washing, after being thoroughly cooled, will reach the mar- 
ket in better condition and keep longer than those that have 
been drawn, scalded, and washed. 

QUESTIONS 

1. How does the climate affect the cost of producing poultry prod- 

ucts? 

2. What is the best method of starting a flock? 

3. What branches of the poultry business offer the best opportunities 

in your section? 

4. What are the advantages of raising pure-bred rather than mongrel 

fowls? 

5. Name the four economic groups into which the different breeds are 

arranged and give the general characteristics of each group. 

6. Name the most important breeds in each group. 

7. Name and discuss four important factors in the, selection of eggs 

for hatching. 

8. What breeds of chickens are best to use for sitting? 

9. When and why should the egg being incubated be tested? 

10. What are the important factors to consider in feeding baby 

chicks? 

11. Why is grit necessary? What kind of grit is best for laying hens? 

For baby chicks? 

12. Why is a variety of feeds best for chickens? 

13. What are the causes of the great loss in marketing eggs? 

14. How can most of this loss be prevented? 

. EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. Making an Egg Tester: Take a shoe box or some other cardboard 
box about that size. Cut a round hole in the center of the lid 
or top about 1 H inches in diameter. In one end of the box cut 
a narrow slit in the center from the top down two inches. Pass 
an electric light cord through this slit, globe inside; turn on 
light; put on lid and tie a string around to hold it on. The 
globe should hang inside just opposite hole in lid. Pull down 



358 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

the window shades and hold an egg — large end up — in the hole 
in the lid so the light will shine through it. Turn egg back 
and forth on long axis. Does the yolk turn with the shell or 
remain somcAvhat stationary? 

2. Testing Eggs: Get at least a dozen eggs — some fresh, others two, 

six and several days old ; or, better, get part of them from under 
a broody hen or from an incubator where they have been in- 
cubated about six to eight days. Note first a fresh egg, both 
brown and white-shelled eggs where possible. Can you see 
the air cell? How large is it? Note the difference in size 
of air cell in fresh eggs and the other eggs. If eggs have been 
incubated, can you see the developing chick? Are any of the 
incubated eggs clear, similar to the fresh egg, except for slightly 
larger air cell? If so, they are infertile. 

3. Visit a poultry farm having pure-bred chickens. Study the color, 

shape, and markings of the chickens. Learn to know them by 
sight. Are the hens, pullets, and roosters the same color? 

4. Collect pictures of the common poultry breeds. 

REFERENCES 

Poultry Production, Lippincott. 
Productive Poultry Husbandry, Lewis. 
Diseases of Poultry, Pearl, Surface and Curtis. 
Progressive Poultry Culture, Brigham. 
American Standard of Perfection. 
Farmers' Bulletins: 

No. 335. A Successful Poultry and Dairy Farm. 

528. Hints to Poultry Raisers. 

530. Important Poultry Diseases. 

574. Poultry House Construction. 

697. Duck Raising. 

767. Goose Raising. 

791. Turkey Raising. 

801. Mites and Lice on Poultry. 

806. Standard Varieties of Chickens. 
1. The American Class. 

830. Marketing Eggs by Parcels Post. 

698 Standard Varieties of Chickens. 

II Mediterranean and Continental Classes. 

889. Back-yard Poultry Keeping. 



CHAPTER XLII 
THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 

The function of all farm animals is to utilize the rough 
food material that people cannot eat, and to change it into 
something useful to mankind, as, for example, the work of 
the horse, the meat and wool of the sheep, the meat of the 
beef animal, and the milk of the dairy cow. When we con- 
sider that all these products, which are so necessary to man- 
kind, are made chiefly from the coarse feeds, worthless for 
human food, we begin to appreciate how important our ani- 
mal friends are as factories to concentrate low-grade materi- 
als. Whatever animals produce must come from the feed 
they eat. 

Classes of Food. For the best results with any of our 
farm animals great care must be taken in the kind and 
amount of feed we give them. All feeds are made up of 
groups of substances which differ from one another in certain 
ways; yet each group is the same no matter in which feed it 
is found, whether in hay, grain, grass, carrots, beets, or any 
other feed. 

Water and Dry Matter. There is a certain amount of 
water in all feeds. This varies from sixty-five to ninety per 
cent in roots, pasture grasses, green alfalfa, and other green 
hays and fodders, to as low as seven to twelve per cent in the 
different grains, dry hays, fodders and straws. The first 
division, then, is the separation of the water and dry matter 
of feeds. 

Protein. The dry matter may be classified into four 
groups known as food nutrients: (1) Proteins, (2) carbohy- 
drates, (3) fats, and (4) ash. Protein differs from all the 
others by containing the chemical element, nitrogen, in 

359 



360 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



addition to carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and some others. 
Lean meat, the white of eggs, and the curd of cheese are pro- 
tein foods for mankind. Such feeds as alfalfa and clover 
hays, peas, bran, and oats, contain a relatively higher pro- 
portion of protein than wild and timothy hays, straw, corn 
fodder, corn, barley, and wheat. 

Carbohydrates occur in feeds in a variety of forms. The 
various sugars and starches are examples of pure carbohy- 



10 2JD 30 4-0 



50 



to 70 SO 



Br R LEV 

Corn 
Ofrrs 
Whert 

6H0RTS 

Brbn 

Alfrlfb Hrm ■ 

Corn Stover C 
OfttStrhv/ C 




Brrue\6trpiw C 

WrieHT6T«Rw C 

CORNSlUBGrE [ 

SuGRR BEETS C 
CPIRR0T5 

MRNGELS I E 

1URM\P6 I H 

Beet Po\-P twet) | b 



Figure 166. — Digestible nutrients of some 



common western feeds in 



fprrs 

per cents. 



THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 361 

drates, and the coarse woody parts of plants are composed 
largely of a mixture of other carbohydrates. Only three 
chemical elements, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, 'enter into 
their structure. Carbohydrates are used in the body to 
produce fat, heat, and energy to be used by the body 
processes or in work. They enter very little into the build- 
ing or repair of the body. 

As examples of carbohydrate feeds may be mentioned the 
grasses, grass hay, straw, corn fodder, rye, barley and corn. 

Fats. The same chemical elements are found in fats as 
compose carbohydrates and they are used in the body for the 
same purpose. The elements, however, occur in such dif- 
ferent proportions that fats are worth to the animal about 
2.25 times as much as carbohydrates. 

Ash. When any plant or animal matter is burned, there 
is left behind an ash, composed of various inorganic, or 
mineral elements, which were a part of the original tissue. 
This ash, or mineral matter, occurs in very small amounts 
in feeding material. It is, however, very important in feed- 
ing of animals. It is used chiefly in the construction of the 
bones, though each cell and fluid of the body must be sup- 
plied with a small amount of ash or disturbances set in which 
may cause death. 

Digestibility. Some of the nutrients are so firmly locked 
up in the coarse, woody portions of the plant that they 
escape the dissolving action of the various digestive juices. 
Only the dissolved portions of the feeds are of any use to 
the animal, the others passing unused out of the body. 

Many factors affect the proportion of each nutrient 
digested, the two chief ones being the kind and condition of 
the feed and the kind of animal fed. Hays and fodders are 
less completely digested than grains and other concentrated 
feeds. Horses and hogs usually digest less of the nutrients 
of any given feed than do cattle and sheep, especially of the 
coarser feeds. 



362 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 




Figure 167. — Stacking alfalfa hay for feed. 



A Good Ration. It is the business of the good feeder to 
supply that ration which will produce the greatest quantity 
of a high grade product and at the same time keep the cost 
of the ration as low as possible. To do this best requires 
great skill and a thorough knowledge of animal life and plant 
composition. No amount of theory, however, can take 

the place of intelli- 
gent observation in 
the barn and stable. 
The two must go 
hand in hand for 
best results. 

A Liberal Ration. 
A ration should be 
liberal; that is, it 
should contain suffi- 
cient total feed for 
the requirements of the animal. The first use food is put to 
by the animal is to keep its own body alive and in normal 
working condition. If anything is expected of the animal in 
addition to this, in the nature of work, meat, wool, milk, or 
eggs, additional feed must be given. 

In order, then, that the best results may be obtained the 
ration, must be liberal enough to keep up the animal body 
and also supply material for the animal to manufacture the 
product for which it is kept. 

A Balanced Ration. A ration must contain a certain 
amount of protein, or muscle-building material, in a proper 
proportion to carbohydrates and fats, or, in other words, it 
must be balanced. Protein is essential to the life of all 
animals. It is necessary in the repair and growth of all lean 
meat, tissues, and the blood, and in the production of milk, 
eggs and other animal products. Even with an al)undant 
supply of the other food nutrients — carbohydrates, fat, and 
ash — the animal will die without protein. The amount of 



THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 363 

protein necessary for best results depends upon the kind of 
protein, the kind of animal and the purpose for which it is 
fed. Chickens require a higher proportion of protein than 
most other classes of animals; a growing calf requires more 
protein in proportion to size than a f^-ttening steer. 

Adaptation to the Animal. The ration must be adapted 
to the kind of animal fed. For example, chickens cannot be 
fed entirely upon coarse hays and fodders, while such is pos- 
sible with cattle and horses under certain conditions. A 
successful hog ration is not a profitable one to feed horses. 

Palatability. A ration for best results must be palatable. 
An animal must be induced to consume large amounts of 
feed in order that the product may be correspondingly great. 
To encourage this large consumption, the feeds must be of 
the kind and in a condition which will appeal to the appetite of 
the animal. Coarse, tasteless feeds cannot be used entirely 
when feeding for the highest production. A variety of feeds 
is usually the best means of stimulating the appetite. 

Quality of Product. A ration should also be made up 
with reference to the quality of the product. The influence 
of feed upon the composition of lean meat is not very well 
understood. It is well-known, however, that certain feeds 
influence the flavor of milk and the flavor and composition of 
butter. Among these may be mentioned wild garlic, pars- 
nips, and potatoes. Leaner pork is continually being called 
for, and of course it will be to the advantage of the feeder to 
keep this in mind and feed to produce the grade of prod- 
uct most in demand. Many experiments have shown that 
feed may influence the quality of pork. Corn, when fed in 
excess, produces a soft, low grade of pork; wheat middlings, 
beans, peanuts, and acorns, when fed in large quantities, 
have a tendency to produce an oily pork. Field peas seem 
to produce pork too dry to be first-grade. 

Economy of Ration Used. A ration should be economical. 
After all, this last requirement is the one of chief importance. 



364 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 




Figure 168. — Alfalfa hay in the making. 



A ration may have all the characteristics given above, and 
yet its cost may be so great as to make its use inadvisable. 
Home-grown feeds are usually most economical and, on this 
account, should generally form the greatest part of the 
ration, even though such a ration might lack some of the 
desired characteristics. In the West, most rations will contain 

more protein 
than is thought 
to be necessary, 
because a large 
part of the pro- 
tein is supplied 
in a relatively 
cheap feed, 
alfalfa, which 
forms the basis 
of most western 
rations. 

Feeding the Animal. Cleanliness is absolutely essential 
to the successful feeding of all classes of animals. The feeds 
should be clean, and great care taken to keep the mangers, 
feed boxes, etc., clean. All classes of animals will do better 
if fed and cared for regularly. They come to expect their 
care at certain times and are ready for it. Sudden changes 
in the ration should always be avoided, as digestive dis- 
orders may result from them. Never feed more at any one 
time than the animals will clean up. 

Animals should have access at all times to a supply of 
pure, fresh water, and a liberal supply of salt. Kindness is 
most important in the treatment of all stock. It is pitiable 
to see an old cow with a large udder full of milk being hur- 
ried home from pasture with a dog at her heels, and her udder 
swinging from side to side at every step. 

Horses. Alfalfa hay is without question the best hay 
for most horses, though for driving and race horses some kind 



THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 365 

of grass hay may be more desirable, because it is less laxative. 
Experiments have shown that less grain is required with 
alfalfa hay than with the grass hays. About two thirds of 
the hay ration should be fed at night and one third in the 
morning, with little or none at noon. As a grain, oats takes 
first place, though bran and bran and shorts have been fed 




Fieure 169.— Corn ha3 come to be recognized as an important crop for the silo in 



the West, 



successfully to horses at slow work. Corn, barley, and wheat 
may also be used where available. 

Throughout most sections of the West there is a tend- 
ency to feed too much hay to horses. Alfalfa hay is very 
palatable and as a result horses will consume too much if 
it is not restricted. This overconsumption, besides being 
wasteful, results in laziness and lack of spirit in the horses 
and frequently brings on digestive disorders. From one to 
one and one quarter pounds of hay and- three quarters to 
one pound of grain per one hundred pounds Uve weight is a 
good basis from which to begin the calculation of a ration 
for the average horse. A sixteen hundred pound draft horse 
would, therefore, be fed from sixteen to twenty pounds of 
alfalfa hay and from twelve to sixteen pounds of grain daily. 

Dairy Cows. In the winter feeding of dairy cows, sum- 
mer conditions should be imitated as closely as possible. 
There should be, therefore, an abundant supply of palatable. 



366 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

succulent feed, and the cow should be kept in warm, com- 
fortable (quarters. Alfalfa hay should form the basis of the 
ration, though this, for best results with good cows, must 
be supplemented with some grain and roots or grain and 
silage. The silo has long been successfully used on eastern 
dairy farms and in recent years silage has proved a most 
valuable addition to the dairy ration in many sections of 
the West. 

For the smaller cows a ration made up of eighteen to 
twenty-five pounds of alfalfa hay, twenty-five pounds of 
silage and from three to eight pounds of grain has given 
good results. For the larger cows the hay should be increased 
to from twenty-five to thirty-five pounds and the silage to 
thirty pounds. Grain should, of course, always be fed 
according to the amount of milk and butter-fat produced. 

In summer about all that is necessary is a good pasture. 
It is, however, advisable to have dry alfalfa hay before the 
cows at night, so they can supplement short pastures or 
make up for time lost in fighting flies. A small allowance of 
grain in addition to the pasture and hay will be found profit- 
able for heavy producing cows. 

Beef Cattle. Where marketing facilities and cropping 
system will permit, beef cattle can be profitably fattened on 
western farms. Here again alfalfa hay will form the basis 
of the ration. From three to ten pounds of grain per head 
daily will probably be found sufficient. Where silage is 
available from twenty to thirty pounds of this will be an 
excellent addition to the ration. 

Barley or a mixture of barley and bran will in many sec- 
tions be found the most economical grain to feed. Any of 
the grains are good if obtainable at reasonable prices. 

Sheep. For summer feeding of sheep a good pasture or 
range is all that is necessary. Usually all that is required, 
in addition to good winter range, is alfalfa hay, save when 
the sheep are to be fattened for market. Barley is the grain 



THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 



367 



most frequently fed in the West to fatten sheep. A practical 
ration for fattening lambs consists of what alfalfa hay they 
will clean up well and three fourths of a pound of barley per 
head daily. Lambs fed on this ration or on some other 
grasses and grains show a good average daily gain. 

Both cattle and sheep are fattened in large numbers 
near sugar factories where green beet pulp is available. The 



^> ^^r^f«a»'-s^ 






Figure 170 —The mountains of the West supply an abundance of nutritious food in 

summer. 

ration for cattle is made up of a limited allowance of hay, grass 
hay being frequently used, from one to five pounds of grain, 
and what green beet pulp the cattle will consume. More 
than one hundred pounds of the pulp per head daily is fre- 
quently eaten. A similar ration is given sheep, except that 
the daily grain allowance ranges from one half to two pounds 
per head. 

Hogs. Hogs do well on good alfalfa, clover, or rape 
pasture in the summer, though they should never be made to 
depend on this entirely. From two to eight pounds of grain 



368 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

per head daily in addition to the pasture may be fed with 
profit, the amount varying with the size of the pig and the 
object in feeding it — fattening hogs of course getting the 
most grain. In the winter hogs will eat considerable amounts 
of alfalfa hay, if fine. Roots and skim milk are also relished. 
Corn is perhaps the best grain to feed with alfalfa and roots, 
though barley and shorts may also be fed to advantage and 
will actually be found cheaper in many sections. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is the function of farm animals? Illustrate how each is 

of value to man. 

2. Name and briefly describe the six food nutrients. 

3. How are the various feeds utilized in the animal body? 

4. Give six characteristics of a good ration with reasons for each. 

5. How should horses be fed for best results? 

6. Why and how should a dairy ration differ from a ration for horses? 

7. Discuss briefly sheep and hog feeding. 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. Secure oats, wheat, barley, corn, rye, and any mixed feed on the 

market; quart measure and scales. Measure out and weigh one 
quart -of each of the grains. Calculate the weight to the bushel. 

2. With a tape measure or ruler measure a grain bin and determine 

its cubical contents. From the number of cubic feet in the 
bin, and in a bushel, and the weight of a bushel of the different 
kinds of grain as determined in Exercise 1, find the number 
of bushels and weight of each kind of grain which can be put 
into the bin. 
Note: There are 1.2445 cubic feet in a bushel. 

3. Use a small bunch of alfalfa, clover, timothy, redtop, and wild 

hays, corn stover, and straw. Study each sample separately; 
note the relative proportions of leaves and stalks; the way the 
stalks branch; the coarseness of the stalks; the way the leaves 
are attached to the stalks; the ease with which the leaves are 
broken from the stalks; the ease with which the leaves are 
crushed. What relation has each of these to the dustiness and 
the quality of the hay? 



THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 369 

To find the amounts of hay and grain consumed by the different 
kinds of farm animals, weigh the customary feed of hay and 
grain given to each of several animals. Note the kind, age, 
and size of the animals, and the kinds and amounts of feed. 

REFERENCES 

Productive Feeding of Farm Animals, Woll. 

Principles of Animal Nutrition, Armsby. 

Principles of Feeding Farm Animals, Bull. 

Feeds and Feeding, Henry and Morrison. 

The Nutrition of Farm Animals, Armsby. 

Feeding of Animals, Jordan. 

Profitable Stock Feeding, Smith. 

Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, Eckles. 

Swine, Dietrich. 

Productive Swine Husbandry, Day. 

Sheep Farming, Craig. 

Western Grazing Grounds and Forest Ranges, Barnes. 

Farmers' Bulletins: 

No. 22. The Feeding of Farm Animals. 

170. Principles of Horse Feeding. 

536. Stock Poisoning Due to Scarcity of Food. 

578. Handling and Feeding Silage. 

690. The Field Pea as a Forage Crop. 

724. The Feeding of Grain Sorghums to Live Stock. 

743. The Feeding of Dairy Cows. 

777. Feeding and Management of Dairy Calves and Young 
Dairy Stock. 

873. Utilization of Farm Waste in Feeding Live Stock. 



24— 



CHAPTER XLIII 

THE CARE OF ANIMALS 

Probably the most neglected and least understood part 
of the live stock business is the proper care of animals. Live 
stock is usually handled in a haphazard way with but little 
regard for system or detail, and, as a result, great losses are 
experienced yearly. According to a recent report of the 
Secretary of Agriculture, the loss of animals in one year in 
the United States alone, from disease and exposure, was, in 
round numbers, six and a half million swine, two and a half 
million sheep, two million cattle, and one half million horses 
and. mules. The monetary loss is placed at $200,000,000 
yearly, a startling waste of resources. 

CAUSES OF DISEASES 

Confinement in Close Quarters. With proper under- 
standing of the care of animals many of the losses now ex- 
perienced could be prevented. At one time, when the open 
range was plentiful and the live stock were allowed to roam 
at will over the country and select desirable food and pro- 
tection, diseases were almost unknown. Artificial methods 
of feeding and housing bring on many disorders and diseases 
that were not known on the open range. Whenever animals 
are gathered in large numbers, there is an increased tendency 
toward disease, as their freedom is interfered with, and, in- 
stead of selecting their own forage, they are compelled to 
take whatever is supplied them — too much or too little food 
that is not of a nourishing nature, or that is spoiled. They 
may be housed in stables or barns that are poorly lighted 
and ventilated and that are often in a very unsanitary con- 
dition. Again, they may not be allowed free access to good 

370 



THE CAFE OF ANIMALS 



371 



water at regular intervals. All these causes have a tendency 
to lessen the resistance of the animals and make them more 
susceptible to disease. Some of the common causes, then, 
of disease among live stock are poor feed, poor quality or 
irregular access to feed and water, poor ventilation or expo- 




Figure 171. — A picture of trouble; a neglected cow 

sure, lack of exercise, heredity, germs, parasites, and affected 
teeth and feet, mostly preventable by proper care. 

Overfeeding. Animals that are overfed and allowed to 
become too fat are susceptible to disorders and disease and 
are not able to endure hard work satisfactorily. Horses are 
often given large amounts of feed just before they are com- 
pelled to perform hard work or go on a long journey, a prac- 
tice which is extremely detrimental. The stomach, being 
small, is unduly distended, or the food is forced on into the 
intestines before it is acted on by the stomach juices. The 
animal body can take care of only a certain amount of 
nourishing matter; anything over this amount must be ex- 
creted. The digestive organs are taxed to their utmost to 



372 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

digest the food and then the organs of ahmentation are again 
taxed to get rid of the excess. In this way the animal soon 
wears out and breaks down. Unnutritious, bulky, or spoiled 
food overtaxes the digestive system. 

It is also bad to feed much to warm or tired animals. 
Sudden changes of food may also bring on disorders. When 









,-...^- 


B- 









Figure 172. — Exposed horses; poor care. 

heavy work is stopped, feed should be lightened up con- 
siderably in order to prevent trouble. 

Poisonous Plants. Animals may get poisonous plants 
or roots of such plants in pastures or in hay, often over- 
coming them entirely or weakening their bodies until rather 
susceptible to disease. 

Bad or Irregular Water. Where animals are worked 
from about seven o'clock in the morning until noon, in the 
hot sun, without being allowed a drink during this time, 
they often drink too much; and, if this water is cold, it tends 
to injure them. Work animals should be allowed water 
once or oftener during the half day, if possible. The person 
who drives the horses usually takes a drink at intervals dur- 
ing the half day and he should think of the animals at the 
same time. Horses would then stand more and be less 
liable to digestive troubles and other diseases. Water may 



THE CARE OF ANIMALS 373 

contain decaying animal and vegetable matter, parasites, 
bacteria, or minerals, all or any of which may prove injurious. 
Only pure water should be given animals at regular intervals 
as frequently as they require, according to the work. 

Poor Ventilation. Some animals are compelled to stand 
in an ill-kept and poorly ventilated stable most of the time. 
To do so is equally detrimental, as animals require good 
fresh air and plenty of exercise. Resistance is weakened 
and many bodily disorders are contracted. Animals should 
also have protection from cold and wet. 

Parasites. Animals are often affected by internal and 
external parasites which may lower their resistance and 
make them more susceptible to diseases. Among internal 
parasites are round worms, flat worms, bots, and liver para- 
sites. These usually cause animals to become unthrifty, 
often making them susceptible to infectious diseases. 
Among external parasites are mange, itch, mites, ticks, 
lice, ringworm, and flies. Generous feeding is a good 
preventive for parasitic diseases, as it keeps the animals 
strong and healthy. Medicines may be oils that suffocate, 
poisons that kill, or irritants that devour or disperse the 
parasites. There is no one remedy for overcoming this 
trouble in all animals. 

Germs. Contagious and infectious diseases are brought 
about by germs which usually enter the animal body through 
the digestive and respiratory tracts or through wounds and 
abrasions. Germs thrive best in filthy places, such as poorly 
ventilated or poorly lighted stables, where much manure 
has accumulated, or where there is decaying matter, wet 
soils, stagnant water, or unsanitary surroundings. 

The Teeth. If one tooth does not come in proper con- 
tact with the one on the opposite jaw, there is nothing to 
wear it away, and such teeth grow out long and lacerate 
the tissues of the opposite jaw, causing severe pain and inter- 
fering seriously with the animal's eating. We may also find 



374 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

sharp, decayed and ulcerated, split or broken teeth. These 
should be treated. Some men feed animals patent feeds or 
powders, expecting them to do better and lay on flesh, when 
there is nothing wrong with the animal except that its teeth 
are bad. The usefulness of the horse depends largely upon 
the teeth, because, if they are affected, the entire body 
suffers. Horses' teeth should be examined at least once a 
year by a qualified veterinarian. The general symptoms of 
affected teeth are unthriftiness in spite of good feed and no 
work, saliva dribbling from the mouth, often chewing the 
feed and then spitting it out again. Difficulty in chewing, 
holding the head sidewise, and chewing only on one side; 
drinking cold water very slowly, throwing head to one side, 
slobbering it from the mouth again; a swelling of the jaw, 
a refusal of food, fetid odors from the mouth, and manure 
containing undigested food, all indicate tooth troubles. For 
these indications a veterinarian is indispensable. 

The Feet. Another absolute necessity in handling the 
animal is the care of the feet. The old adage, *'No foot, 
no horse," is indeed a true one, because an animal with 
poor feet is not capable of carrying itself over the ground 
properly, and hence cannot perform its work efficiently. 
Care of the feet of colts is of especial importance, and abun- 
dant exercise on dry ground which is not too rough is most 
beneficial. The hoofs are thus worked gradually and uni- 
formly. It is also necessary to keep the hoof clean by fre- 
quent and thorough washing and by bedding with plenty 
of good straw, if in the stable. Shoeing is a necessary evil. 
Owing to hard roads, the feet of work animals must be pro- 
tected with shoes. After the feet are properly trimmed, 
the shoe should be made to fit the foot and not the foot to 
fit the shoe, as is too commonly the case. The frog should 
be left large and elastic, as nature has provided, to take off 
some of the concussion that would otherwise be transmitted 
to the body. 



THE CARE OF ANIMALS 375 

Too early shoeing of young horses is very injurious, as 
it hinders the development of the hoofs. Moderate work 
in the fields does not injure young horses, but for such work 
they do not need shoes. It is advisable to allow horses to 
go barefoot whenever possible, but the hoof should be kept 
trimmed. 

Heredity. Such conditions as faulty conformation, bony 
blemishes, as ringbones and spavins are often transmitted 
from parent to offspring and develop sometime during the 
lifetime. The weakness is transmitted, not the disease. 

PREVENTION OF DISEASE 

Grooming. Grooming animals is the process of mechan- 
ically cleaning the skin and coat and of applying friction 
and massage to them. Grooming is a necessity for confined 
or working animals imposed on them by domestication. 

Animals ' 'turned out" require no grooming, as nature 
takes care of them, furnishing them with the coat that is 
necessary for their environment. 

Proper grooming cleanses the coat and skin, stimulates 
the circulation, assists the action of the lungs, gives tone to 
the skin, and acts beneficially on the muscular structure. 
Especially should the legs and feet receive proper attention. 

Neglect of grooming may bring on skin diseases, partic- 
ularly the parasitic forms; it also allows wastes that are to 
be thrown off by the skin to be absorbed by the body, less- 
ening the resistance of the animal and allowing greater 
chance for disease. 

Disinfection. Disinfection is intended to check the 
spread of contagious diseases and to protect from further 
infection animals which may be already diseased. When 
a yard or corral is being disinfected, all the litter should be 
removed, the ground burned over with a layer of straw. 
Three or four inches of surface dirt may be removed, or the 
entire surface sprayed with some good disinfectant, such as 



376 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

a five per cent solution of carbolic acid, creolin, or lysol. 
The same material can also be used for disinfecting the in- 
side of barns or stables. Where there is considerable wood- 
work inside barns, corrosive sublimate is often used in from 
one to five per cent solution with hot water. Any germs 
exposed to direct sunHght for a length of time are destroyed. 
This is nature's method of overcoming injurious germs. 
Allow plenty of sunlight. 

Quarantine. Where infectious or contagious disease ex- 
ists the well animals should be removed from the diseased 
ones to clean dry surroundings. The infected premises 
should be cleaned up by thorough disinfection and all the 
dead animals properly disposed of. The well ones should 
be watched to see if any come down with the disease, and 
as soon as noticed removed to the sick herd. 

When introducing new animals into a herd or flock, it 
is best to keep them quarantined for about two weeks to 
make sure that they are healthy, before allowing them to 
mingle with the other animals. 

Disposal of Carcasses. All dead animals, especially if 
death was due to some contagious disease, should be burned 
or buried deep in the ground. The most effective method 
in burying animals is to put them about six or eight feet 
under ground and cover them with a layer of quicklime. 

ACCIDENTS AND TREATMENT OF WOUNDS 

Wounds and abrasions of the skin and of other parts of 
the body are often responsible for much trouble among 
animals, causing the resistance of the body to be overcome. 
The only way success can be obtained with wounds of any 
kind is to observe perfect cleanliness. 

The blood should be stopped by the tying of the bleed- 
ing vessel with a piece of clean cord or silk or by applying 
clean absorbent cotton over the wound and then placing a 
roller bandage over the injured part. After all bleeding 



THE CARE OF ANIMALS 



377 



has stopped the wound can be dressed by removing all 
foreign objects or hair that may be hanging on the wound, 
and cleaned with a mild antiseptic solution consisting of 
about a two per cent solution of creolin, carbolic acid, or 
lysol. It should then be covered with a drying powder 
consisting of equal parts of boric and tannic acid and about 




Figure 173. — Cattle given natural and proper care. 

one half part of iodoform mixed together, covered with ab- 
sorbent cotton, and wrapped with a bandage. The wound 
should be dressed daily with the drying powder, clean cot- 
ton and a bandage until healing is well along. 



QUESTIONS 

1. Why are diseases of animals more frequent now than formerly? 

2. List the causes of disease. 

3. What dangers accompany overfeeding? 

4. State the precautions considered advisable in watering animals. 

5. Give the principal points concerning ventilation, cleaning stables, 

and grooming. 

6. Describe the most common diseases and give control measures. 

7. What is disinfection? When should it be practiced? 

8. Discuss vaccination. 

9. How should an animal's teeth be cared for? Its feet? 
10. Give methods in caring for wounds. 



378 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 



1. If it should so happen that a veterinarian is caring for an injured 

horse in the neighborhood, it might be profitable to watch him 
treat it. 

2. If convenient to all concerned, visit a blacksmith shop and get 

him to explain as he shoes a horse. 
Note: Arrangements for both these exercises should be made 
with the men concerned. 

REFERENCES 

Veterinary Medicine, 5 vols., Law. 
Common Diseases of Farm Animals, Craig. 
The Farmers' Veterinarian, Burkett. 
Animal Doctor, Leaney. 
Diseases of Animals, Mayo. 
Special Reports, U. S. D. A. 

Diseases of Cattle. 

Diseases of the Horse. 
Diseases of Horses, Cattle, and Hogs, Mcintosh. 
Productive Horse Husbandry, Gay. 
Productive Swine Husbandry, Day. 
Horseshoeing, Lungwitz. 
Animal Dentistry, Maralett. 

Western Grazing Grounds and Forest Ranges, Barnes. 
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. D. A. 

No. 152. Scabies of Cattle. 
179. Horseshoeing. 
206. Milk Fever and Its Treatment. 
345. Some Common Disinfectants. 
351. Tuberculin Test of Cattle for Tul)erculosis. 

379. Hog Cholera. 

380. The Loco- Weed Disease. 
439. Anthrax. 

531. Larkspur, or 'Toison Weed." 

536. Stock Poisoning Due to Scarcity of Feed. 

540. The Stable Fly. 

666. The Foot-and-Mouth Disease. 

720. Prevention of Losses of Stock from Poisonous Plants. 

784. Anthrax or Charbon. 

790. Contagious Abortion in Cattle. 



CHAPTER XLIV 
SUGAR AND FLOUR 
SUGAR 

Long before the dawn of the Christian Era, cane and bam- 
boo were cultivated for the sugar that could be extracted from 
them. The process of extraction was primitive indeed. The 
raw cane was used as food. From the fifth to the tenth 
century A. D. sugar was extracted and crystallized in small 
quantities and used by physicians as a medicine. Since then 
its use as a food has rapidly developed, and, though it was 
long regarded as a luxury to be enjoyed by the wealthy 
classes alone, it is now a necessity in every household. 

Cane Sugar. The first sugar factory to operate success- 
fully in the United States was built in Louisiana in 1791, 
and from that time until the beginning of the Civil War, the 
sugar industry maintained a steady growth in the South. 
A variety of cane had been found that flourished in the 
warm climate and on the fertile soil of the lower Mississippi 
Valley. The slave trade made labor cheap; as a result, 
large cane plantations could be managed at low cost. Dur- 
ing the first half of the nineteenth century more than sixty 
per cent of the world's sugar supply was produced by slave 
labor, Cuba, Porto Rico, and our own Southern States lead- 
ing. The alDolition of slavery in America and the simulta- 
neous development of the beet sugar industry in Europe 
operated as checks on the extension of sugar cane culture. 
At the present time about half of the world's production is 
from beets, the other half being almost entirely from cane, 
though a little maple sugar is still being made. Within 
the last ten years the amount of cane sugar annually pro- 

379 



380 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

duced has decreased about ten per cent, while the beet sugar 
production has increased more than twelve hundred per cent. 

Louisiana. More than ninety per cent of all the cane 
sugar produced in the United States is raised and manu- 
factured in Louisiana. The system governing the price paid 
for cane is unique. The farmers receive $1 .00 per ton for cane 
for each cent per pound received by the factories for the sugar. 
Thus, if the wholesale factory price for sugar is 3c per pound, 
the cane is paid for at $3.00 per ton. 

Hawaii and Cuba. The Hawaiian Islands are especially 
well adapted to the cultivation of cane. The average yield 
is thirty-five tons an acre and twice that amount is not 
unusual. No other country in the world has so high an 
average yield, and the percentage of sugar in Hawaiian cane 
is higher than the average anywhere else. Cuba cultivates 
a much greater acreage than Hawaii and exports more 
sugar than any other country. In 1909 Cuba produced 
1,573,582 tons of cane sugar; Java, 1,241,885; Hawaii, 500,- 
000 tons and Brazil, 248,000 tons. 
BEET SUGAR 

History. It was a German chemist, Marggraf, who, in 
1747, first obtained sugar from beets. It was fifty years 
after this discovery was made before the first beet sugar 
factory was built. For fifty years more the sugar beet in- 
dustry struggled for recognition, but found it almost impos- 
sible to compete successfully with the cane. Then modern 
methods, improved machinery, and a protective tariff came 
to its aid, with the result indicated as follows: 

Beet sugar produced in Germany in 1836, 14,000 tons; 
1877, 378,000 tons; 1886, 1,000,000 tons; and in 1906, 2,- 
223,500 tons. The average extraction in Germany is 15.7 
per cent and the cost of production two cents a pound. 

The sugar obtained from beets is identical with cane 
sugar when both are pure. The impurities contained in 
the two sugars are different. 



SUGAR AND FLOUR 



381 




Figure 174. — Sugar factory, Logan, Utah. 



In the United States. Although the Alvarado factory 
was built in California in 1870 and has been in operation con- 
tinuously since that time, the beet sugar industry amounted 
to very Uttle in the United States prior to 1897. Since then 
the growth of the industry has been phenomenal. In 1892 
the United States produced 13,000 tons of beet sugar; in 1897, 
45,000 tons; in 1902, 281,406 tons; in 1910, 510,172 tons; and 

in 1914,700,000 
tons. The cost 
of producing 
beet sugar in 
the United 
States varies 
greatly in the 
different fac- 
tories, depend- 
ing upon the 
price of labor, 

price paid for beets, the composition of the beet and the 
efficiency with which it is extracted. 

Russia produces nearly 1,500,000 tons of beet sugar annu- 
ally, but Germany leads with an annual production of 2,500,- 
ODO tons. In 1914, the six greatest sugar-producing states in 
this country, in order, with the number of factories, were, for 
(1) Colorado, sixteen; (2) Michigan, sixteen; (3) California, 
thirteen; (4) Utah, seven; (5) Idaho, five; (6) Ohio, five. In 
addition, there are sixteen factories scattered in other states 
making seventy-eight in all. 

The United States produces annually more than a half 
million tons of beet sugar and almost as much cane sugar. 
In addition to this, we import approximately two millions 
of tons of sugar annually for which we send out of the country 
$130,000,000 every year. This cost of imported sugar added 
to the value of our home product makes the sugar bill of 
the United States one million dollars a day. 



382 



WE i^ TERN AGRICULTURE 



Storage Bins. Beets delivered at the factory are stored 
in long V-shaped bins. The floor of each bin is made in 
small movable sections and directly under the floor there is a 
sluice, or flume, through which a rapid stream of water flows. 
A section of the floor near the lower end of the bin is removed 
and the beets are allowed to drop into the stream below, 

which carries them to the mill, 
meanwhile freeing them from much 
dirt. They are removed from the 
stream by means of large steel 
flanges on a wheel that elevates 
them to the scrubber. The scrub- 
ber is a large tank filled with water 
and having rotating brushes or pad- 
dles that move the beets through 
the water to remove the dirt. 

From the scrubber the beets 
are elevated by cups on an endless 
belt to the top of the mill where 
they are delivered to an automatic 
weighing machine. 

Removing the Juice. The 
sheer is a large steel cylinder in 
which the beets are cut into long 
slender strips called cossettes. The 
cossettes are carried in an iron trough to the diffusion battery, 
which consists of from twelve to fourteen steel tanks or cells, 
each holding about two and one half tons of cossettes. 

The sugar is dissolved out of the beets by a stream of 
warm water, which enters at the top of one cell, passes 
down through the mass of cossettes, up through a heating 
tube, and down through the next cell. The juice is piped 
from the diffusion battery to the measuring tank. When 
the sugar has been extracted, the remaining pulp is pumped 
to the silo and is used for feeding cattle and other live stock. 




Figure 175. — ^Ccntrifugal machines 
in a sugar factory. 



SUGAR AND FLOUR 383 

Purifying the Juice. The juice that accumulates in the 
measuring tank is a dark-colored, sweet liquid containing a 
high percentage of sugar mixed with various impurities. 
Milk of hme is added to the juice which absorbs a vast 
quantity of the impurities suspended in the liquid. Carbon 
dioxide, now added, unites with the dissolved portion of 
the lime, forming a white insoluble substance which settles, 
carrying with it much of the dark-colored matter. 

The liquid is then pressed through canvas filters to sep- 
arate it from undissolved lime and dark-colored impurities. 
These processes are repeated for further purification. 

Sulphur is burned and the gas produced, known as sul- 
phur dioxide, is passed into the juice. This combines with 
the hme in the solution, forming insoluble compounds which 
are removed by filtering through canvas. 

Concentration. The liquid is now concentrated by boil- 
ing off a part of the water. The syrup passes to the crystal- 
hzing pan where the evaporation is continued. When the 
desired consistency is reached the mass flows into the mixer. 
In another vat the heavy brown mass is stirred until it is 
drawn off at the bottom into the rapidly rotating centrif- 
ugals, large steel cylinders with perforated Unings. The 
water, carrying some sugar in solution, passes through the 
perforations, but most of the sugar remains in the cylinder. 

Sugar Crystals. The crystals are scraped from the walls 
of the vessel and carried by elevators to the drier, which is 
a horizontal tube five or six feet in diameter and twenty to 
thirty feet long through which the sugar crystals are made 
to travel against a counter current of hot air. The sugar 
then drops down a chute or pipe to the sacker where it is 
placed in one-hundred-pound bags ready for the market. 

The syrup that passes through the centrifuge is rich in 
sugar, and to avoid waste, is again concentrated in evapora- 
tors, and passed through centrifugal machines. The hquid 
passing the second centrifuge is also saved, and subjected to 



384 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

another process known as the Steffens process, where an- 
other yield of sugar is obtained. 

FLOUR 

Our country produces yearly about 800,000,000 bushels of 
wheat and 12,000,000 tons of wheat flour. More than 10,000 




Figure 176. — Flour mill elevator. 

flour mills are in constant operation, employing 40,000 men. 

In Utah there are sixty mills, producing annually more 
than two million dollars' worth of flour and hundreds of 
thousands of dollars, worth of graham, bran, shorts, rolled 
wheat and other products. 

The quality of flour depends largely upon the kind of 
wheat used in its manufacture. For this reason the millers 
of the West pay a higher price for Turkey Red wheat than for 
any other variety. The quality is dependent also upon the 
condition of the wheat and the milling process. Careful 
reduction of the wheat and complete separation of the bran 
and flour are necessary for the production of good flour. 

Milling of Wheat. Wheat, when received at the elevator, 
is freed from the chaff, dirt, shrunken kernels, and other 



SUGAR AND FLOUR 385 

foreign material by fanning and screening it. It is then 
stored in a large building, the elevator, until wanted in the 
mill. The wheat then passes to the milling separator where 
it is given another treatment, very similar to the first, in 
which a more complete separation is accomplished. The 
grain then goes to the scourer, a rapidly rotating cylinder in 
which the wheat is thrown violently against the perforated 
walls of the machine. This agitation removes the fine hairs 
from the end of the kernel and the minute particles of 
dust held in the crease of the berry. An exhaust fan con- 
nected with the scourer removes this dust from the cylinder. 

It is now ready for tempering. This consists in moisten- 
ing the wheat with water and allowing it to stand from six 
to twelve hours to soften the outer part of the kernels in 
order that large flakes of bran may be secured with a mini- 
mum of dust. The amount of water added depends upon 
the kind of grain used, hard wheats requiring more water 
and a longer time for tempering than the soft varieties. 
Ordinarily water, amounting to two or three per cent of the 
weight of the wheat is used. After tempering, the wheat 
goes through a second scourer and then passes to the breaks. 

The breaks are corrugated steel rollers between which the 
wheat is crushed. The broken wheat is sifted through 
screens, the coarser portions being sent to the second and 
third breaks and the finer material passing to the smooth 
rolls. After passing between the rolls, whether corrugated 
or smooth, the mass is separated by screens into portions of 
varying degrees of fineness, and each portion is sent to the 
other rolls set close enough to accomplish further reduction. 
Only that portion which passes through fine bolting silk is 
sold as flour. Ordinarily wheat yields from sixty-five 
to seventy-five per cent of its weight in flour and from 
twenty-five per cent to thirty-five per cent in bran and shorts. 

Bleaching Agents. It has been the custom in some mills 
to bleach flour by such chemical agents as sulphur dioxide 

25— 



386 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



or nitrogen pen^xidc. This praciico has been condemned by 
food experts, })ecause shght anicnnits of the bleaching agents 
are absorbed and retained by the flour. It is now contrary 
to the pure food law to bleach flour. 

Flour Content. Flour contains high percentages of starch 
and protein, together with a little fat, and inorganic matter. 




Figure 177. — Bread made of flour of various wheats. 



These four types of food, carbohydrates (starch and sugars), 
proteins, fats, and mineral matter, are all that are required 
for the complete nourishment of the body. 

The protein content (ten to eighteen per cent) of flour is 
made up chiefly of gluten, a name given to a substance com- 
posed of two distinct chemical bodies, one component called 
gliadin, which is responsible for the stickiness of dough; 
the other, glutenin, a tough, tasteless substance. 

The strength of flour, that is, its capacity to absorb and 
hold water and its power of expanding under the influence 
of the gas (carbon dioxide), liberated in the dough by yeast; 
is dependent upon the quantity and character of the gluten 
present. Hard wheat yields flour much richer in gluten 
than soft wheat, because of which the loaves rise higher, 
thereby causing the bread to be lighter. Good flour, too, 
absorbs more water, making 140 pounds of bread instead 
of 130 for soft wheat flour, 



SUGAR AND FLOUR 387 

QUESTIONS 

1. Give the history of cane sugar. 

2. Where is it largely produced? 

3. Give a brief account of the history of beet sugar. 

4. What nations produce large quantities of beet sugar? 

5. Where in the U. S. is cane sugar manufactured? Beet sugar? 

6. Describe the principal operations in the manufacture of beet sugar. 

7. Howare the by-products used? State their value. 

8. How extensive is flour manufacturing? 

9. How is wheat handled previous to milling? 
10. Describe the chief operations in flour-milling. 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. Double a small strip of cotton cloth. Place 3 or 4 tablespoonfuls 

of flour on it. Now gather up the corners and kneaii under the 
tap. The starch grains wash out, leaving the gluten. 

2. While Exercise 1 is being performed, let other members of the 

class repeat except that some use as much sugar as flour, others 
as much salt as flour, and another group just a Httle salt and a 
little sugar mixed with the flour. Each treatment should be 
done in duplicate. Compare results. 

3. If convenient, and if agreeable to the miller, visit a flour mill. 

Let the miller show the machinery and explain the process. 

4. Collect in small bottles the chief milling products. Label and 

preserve. A small box may be made as described at the end of 
Chapter 25. 

5. If near a sugar factory and if the factory manager is willing, visit 

the factory. Let the guide show the machinery and explain 
the processes. 
Note: Do not undertake these trips unless previously arranged. 

REFERENCES 

The Story of Sugar, Surface. 

Outlines of Industrial Chemistry, Thorp. 

The Sugar Beet, Ware. 

Sugar Technology, Mcintosh. 

Book of Wheat, Dondlinger. 

Small Grains, Carleton. 

Cereals in America, Hunt. 

Sugar at a Glance, Palmer, Senate Document 890. 

Bread and Bread Making, Farmers' Bulletin 807. 



CHAPTER XLV 
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 

Milk is a special fluid secreted by the females of all ani- 
mals that suckle their young. It is manufactured by special 
glands of the body located usually on the outside of the body 
wall, that is, between the body wall and the skin. Milk is 
an emulsion of fat in a watery solution of casein and various 
mineral salts. It is yellowish white, nontransparent, and 
has a slightly sweetish taste. 

Milk Secretion. Milk is secreted in the individual cells 
which go to make up the udder, as the mammary glands of 
a cow are called. From each cell the milk is carried through 
small canals or ducts into larger ones which combine to unite 
on their way toward the opening in the teat, from which the 
milk is drawn. 

Usually milk is not produced in the udder till about the 
time the female gives birth to young. At birth of the young 
the blood which went to nourish the unborn is turned to the 
udder, stimulating the cells to great activity, which results 
in the manufacture of milk. 

Food, the ultimate source of milk, is taken into the body, 
digested, and absorbed by the blood which carries it to the 
udder whence the parts needed in the manufacture of milk 
are taken. 

Milk Composition. Milk is composed of a great many 
different compounds, differing widely in composition and 
characteristics. These compounds may be classified into 
water and solids. The solids are composed of (a) fat; (b) 
casein, that part which curdles when milk sours; (c) albumin, 
which produces a thin skin or film over milk when heated; 
(d) milk sugar, the same in chemical composition as ordinary 

388 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



389 



Average 


Maximum 


Minimw 


.87.17.... 


90.69 


80.32 


. 3.69.... 


6.47 


1.67 


. 3.02 


4.23 


1.79 


. .53 


1.44...... 


25 


. 4.88.... 


6.03 


2.11 


. .71.... 


1.21 


35 



sugar but less sweet; (e) ash, the mineral substance which 
remains after drying and burning milk. The following figures 
quoted from Babcock and Koenig by Wing show the average 
percentage and the variation of the constituents of milk: 
Table X.— Percentage of Constituents of Milk. 

Water. . . 

Fat 

Casein . . . 
Albumin . 
Sugar .... 
Ash 

These figures show a possibility of some supposedly nor- 
mal milk containing about three and one half times the 
amount of solids not fat contained in other milk and nearly 
four times the amount of fat. Mixed milk of a herd usually 
ranges between three and five and one half per cent fat. 

Fat Percentages. The percentage of fat is a trifle higher 
during the first three or four weeks of the lactation period. 
After this time it remains fairly constant, except for irregular 
variations, till the seventh or eighth month. At this time 
the quantity of milk rapidly decreases and there is a tendency 
for the proportion of fat to increase. 

The first milk may show even less than one per cent fat, 
while the last milk of the same milking may show as high 
as ten per cent fat. Contrary to popular belief, where cows 
are fed anything like sufficient rations, feed has little or no 
influence upon the percentage of fat in milk. The age of 
the cow seems to have little or no influence upon the rich- 
ness of the milk in fat. The breed and individuahty of the 
cow are the two chief factors governing the fat content of 
milk. The following figures give the relative fat content 
of various dairy breeds of cows, as reported by Eckles: 

Jersey 5.14 Ayrshire 3.85 

Guernsey 4.98 Holstein-Friesian . . . .3.45 

It is weU known that within the same breed variations 
occur as great as the averages found between any two breeds. 



390 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 




Figure 178. — A four-bottle hand-driven 
Babcock milk tester. 



Jerseys are known giving as 
low as four per cent milk and 
others as high as six and one 
half per cent. 

Variations in the composi- 
tion of fat, that is, a hard or 
soft fat, a yellow or light fat, 
large or small fat globules, and 
flavor of fat, occur as a result 
of breed, individuality, feed, 
and period of lactation. 
Milk Testing. On account of the variation in composi- 
tion of milk and the ease with which it may be adulterated, 
it is necessary, as a protection to those purchasing milk, to 
have some means of determining the percentage of the vari- 
ous ingredients. Especially is this true of fat, as fat is so 
easily separated from the milk. For exact work well-known 
chemical methods are used. Many devices have been tried 
to determine quickly and conveniently the per cent of fat 
in milk. The one now almost universally used in the United 
States in commercial work and the only one which can be 
discussed here is the so-called Babcock test. With the 
necessary equipment 
and supplies at hand a 
Babcock test for fat can 
be made in about ten 
minutes. The test, if 
carefully made, is accu- 
rate to about one tenth 
of one per cent. 

Babcock Test. The 
equipment needed for 
a Babcock test is: 
1 — A testing machine. 

o T" + U +4-1 Figure 179. — Babcock milk tester, enclosed and 

J i est Dottles. driven by a steam turbine or by electricity. 




MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 391 

Milk bottles graduated to 10% in 0.2 of a per cent. 
Cream bottles graduated to 50% in 0.5 of a per cent. 
Double-necked skim milk bottles graduated to 0.5% 

in hundredths of a per cent. 

3 — A milk pipette having a capacity of 17.6 c. c. 

4 — ^An acid measure having a capacity of 17.5 c. c. 

5 — A pair of dividers. 

6 — Concentrated commercial sulphuric acid. 

The following directions apply to testing whole milk, 
skim milk and buttermilk. Cream is tested in the same way 
except that eighteen grams are weighed into the test bottle 
instead of being measured. In testing the richer creams 
(above 30 per cent) nine grams may be taken and the reading 
obtained doubled. In reading the test amyl alcohol or some 
other substance is placed on the fat column to destroy the 
meniscus. With the richer creams the reading may be taken 
from both extremes of the fat column and the reading 
decreased by one per cent. 

Properly label the required number of test bottles. 
Thoroughly mix the sample of milk to be tested. A small 
round brush with stiff bristles is convenient for this purpose, 
as with this the cream which may have adhered to the sides 
of the sample jar can be removed and incorporated in the 
sample. As soon as the sample is well mixed fill the pipette 
exactly to the 17.6 c.c. mark and transfer this amount of 
milk into the proper test bottle. If the point of the pipette 
can be introduced down the neck of the test bottle so that 
the tip reaches the body of the bottle the milk can safely be 
introduced in this maimer. Otherwise place the point of 
the pipette in the mouth of the bottle neck, hold the two at 
an angle to each other, and let the milk run slowly from the 
pipette. If a drop of the measured sample is lost another 
sample should be measured into a clean bottle. The last 
drop or two of milk may be removed from the pipette by 
gently blowing through it while its end is still in the bottle. 



392 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 






Run all tests in duplicate. That is, measure 
out two test bottles of milk from each sample. 
When the test is completed the reading of the two 
bottles should not differ more than 
0.2 per cent. If a greater difference 
than this is found, the test should be 
carefully repeated. 

Fill the acid measure to the mark 
(17.5 c.c.) and carefully pour the acid 
into the bottle. Revolve 
the bottle slowly as the acid 
runs in so as to remove any 
milk or cream that 
may be clinging 
there. Mix the 
contents thor- 
oughly by care- 
fully shaking the 
bottle in a rotary 
motion. This 
should be contin- 
ued till the curd 
has been com- 
pletely dissolved 
as shown by the 
resulting mix- 
ture's assuming a brownish black color. The shaking should 
be gentle to avoid slopping into the neck of the bottle. 

Put the bottles at once into the machine. Arrange them 
opposite each other to insure a proper balance and, therefore, 
smooth running of the machine. Whirl at the speed indi- 
cated on the tester which is usually from 80 to 100 turns per 
minute with hand machines. The first whirhng should con- 
tinue for five minutes. Stop the machine gradually and add 
hot water (about 150° F.) to the bottles with a clean pipette 




Figure 180. — Apparatus used in sampling and testing milk : 

A, Pipette; E, Milk thief for sampling; D, Dividers; 

B, Test bottle for milk; C, Acid measure. 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



393 




^lA 



till each is full to the ])ottom of the neck. Whirl again for 
two minutes, stop as before, add sufficient hot water to bring 
the fat column well within the graduations on the neck of the 

bottle, and whirl for one minute 
more. Care must be exercised in 
adding this last water not to over- 
fill the neck and thus lose some of 
the fat. 

When the test is completed 
remove the bottles from the ma- 
chine and stand them in a vessel 
of warm water deep enough to cov- 
er them well up on the necks. The 
water should be kept at about 
140°F. 

The reading is best taken by- 
means of dividers. Place one point 
of the dividers at the extreme bot- 
tom of the fat column and then 
spread them till the other point 
reaches the extreme top. (Fig. 181, '^a.") With the dividers 
spread to exactly this degree, place one of their points on 
the zero mark. The mark up the neck where the other point 
falls gives the reading of the test. (Fig. 181, ''b.") 

Cream Separation. Cream is defined as ''that part of 
milk into which a large portion of fat has been gathered." 
Cream is by far the most valuable part of milk, as it is from 
this that butter, the chief product, is made. 

Separating the cream was first accomplished by the shal- 
low-pan and the deep-setting systems. In the former, the 
milk was allowed to stand in shallow pans, and in the latter 
in deep vessels till the cream came to the surface. With 
these systems there is considerable loss of fat in the skim 
milk, amounting to from five to forty per cent of the total 
fat of average milk. This great loss of fat, together with the 



Figure 181. — Method of meas- 
uring the fat column (posi- 
tion a) and of reading the 
test (position b) in making 
a Babcock test. 



394 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



long time and the vessels and space necessary for the satis- 
factory operation of these methods, rtiakes them very unpro- 
fitable when working on a commercial basis. 

The Cream Separator. 
Most of the difficulties and 
losses of the old systems were 
overcome by the invention and 
perfection of the centrifugal 
machine separator. Separa- 
tion of the cream in these ma- 
chines is accomplished by the 
application of centrifugal force 
in a horizontal plane, in place 
of the force of gravity utilized 
in the shallow-pan or the deep- 
setting systems. There are a 
great many different makes of 
separators on the market, but 
they all operate on the same 
principle. The essential parts 
of all separators are the bowl, 
an inlet for whole milk, and an outlet for skim milk and one 
for cream, and some device for revolving the bowl at a high 
rate of speed. 

Butter Making. Cream is usually soured before it is 
churned. It will sour if allowed to stand in an open vessel 
in a warm place. It is better to add an artificial starter or 
some buttermilk of good flavor saved from the last churn- 
ing. Butter may be made from sweet cream, but more 
butter-fat is lost in the buttermilk than when the cream is 
ripened. Sweet cream butter also has a different flavor to 
which the market would have to become accustomed. 

Churning is best done in a revolving churn in which the 
agitation is produced by the cream's falling upon itself and 
against the sides of the churn instead of by paddles or dashes. 




Figure 182. — A cream separator 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



395 



The proper temperature for churning depends somewhat upon 
the nature of the cream. Between 56° and 65° F. will be 
found satisfactory under most conditions. The higher tem- 
perature is necessary in the winter. If the cream is the 

proper temperature, 
churning will occupy 
from twenty to forty- 
five minutes. When 
the cream ''breaks" and 
the butter granules 
reach about the size of 
a pea, the churn should 
be stopped and the 
buttermilk drawn off. 
Washing. After the 
buttermilk is thorough- 
ly drained off, clean 
water about the same 
temperature as the but- 
termilk should be add- 
ed and then the churn given one or two turns. This water 
should then be drawn and more added. The second water 
should show no more than a slight milkiness when drawn. 
If it does, a third washing should be given. 

Working. The amount of salt to add will vary to suit 
the taste of the consumer. Three quarters of an ounce to 
one ounce per pound is the usual amount. Butter is worked 
merely to insure an even distribution of the salt, expel the 
surplus water, and bring it into a compact form for handling. 
After these objects are accomplished, any further working 
will only injure the texture of the butter. 

Moulding and Packing. Most butter for short shipment 
and immediate consumption is put in pound prints 4^x2 J/^ 
x2^ inches, wrapped in parchment paper, and sometimes 
enclosed in cardboard cartons. This is by far the most 




Figure 183. 



-Upright* cheese press, showing one 
drop in place. 



396 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

desirable way of marketing butter, as it reaches the con- 
sumer in a clean, unopened package. It is sometimes packed 
in ash tubs of various sizes. 

Cheese Making. In the process of cheese making most 
of the solids of milk are collected in the product. This is 
especially true of the casein and fat. A large part of the 
ash is also retained, though practically all the sugar is lost 
in the whey. Cheese consists of about equal parts of water, 
casein, and fat. The milk solids are collected -by rendering 
the casein insoluble by coagulating or curdling it with ren- 
net. As the casein sets it holds in its meshes the tiny glob- 
ules of fat suspended in the milk. 

There are a great many different kinds of cheese, the 
differences between them being produced chiefly by the pro- 
cess of ripening and by the kind of milk used. Only the 
ordinary, or cheddar, cheese can be discussed here. The 
processes involved in making this cheese may be grouped 
into eight periods. 

Period I., Setting, The milk is gradually warmed up to 
82°-86°F. and kept at this temperature until sufficient lactic 
acid has developed (0.19-0.21 per cent). When sour enough, 
two to three fluid ounces of rennet diluted in fifty times its 
volume of cold water are added for each thousand pounds 
of milk. This is quickly and uniformly stirred into the milk. 
After about thirty minutes the curd is firm enough for the 
next step. 

Period II., Cutting. The curd is cut so the whey will run 
off more readily and completely. Cutting is best done by 
gangs of steel knives — one set of horizontal and one of 
vertical knives„ See Fig. 184. The horizontal knives are 
run lengthwise of the vat, cutting the curd in thin layers. 
The vertical knives are then run both lengthwise and cross- 
wise of the vat, leaving the curd cut in cubes about ^ inch 
in diameter. As soon as cut the curd is gently agitated till 
the surfaces '^leal" so the cubes will not adhere. 



MILK AND IT^S PRODUCTS 



397 



Period III., Heating. The cubes of curd are heated with 
constant stirring in the whey to make them contract and 
force out the water. Heating should be slow, the tempera- 
ture rising not more than 2° in each five minutes. When a 

temperature of 94°-102°F. 
is reached it is held at this 
point till about 0.16-0.20 
per cent acid is present in 
the whey and a test shows 
the curd to be ready for 
the next step. 

Period IV., Cheddaring. 
This step causes more 
whey to escape and the 
curd to change from its 
original tough spongy con- 
dition to a smooth, elastic, 
fibrous mass. All the 
whey is allowed to drain 
from the vat and the cubes 
of curd mat together. 
This mass is cut in blocks 
about 8x8x12 inches 
later four and five deep 
The temperature 




Horizontal 
Figure 184 



Perpendicular 



Curd knives used in cheese 
making. 



and piled first two deep then 

with constant turning and restacking. 

is kept above 90°F. 

Period V., Grinding. The blocks of curd are ground to 
cut them up into particles small enough to take salt readily 
and to be pressed into a solid mass. This process also helps 
to expel any disagreeable odors present. The curd is cut 
by running it through a curd mill of one kind or another. 

Period VI., Salting. Addition of salt makes the curd drier 
and harder, and checks the development of lactic acid which 
has been going on up to this point. Salt is added chiefly, 
however, to improve the flavor of cheese. After the curd 



398 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

is milled it is spread out thin at a temperature not below 
90° F. and one and one half to three pounds of fairly coarse 
salt are added for each one hundred pounds of curd. 

Period VII., Pressing. Spreading the curd for salting cools 
it off. When it reaches 78°-82°F. it should be put in the press. 
This removes any surplus water and causes the particles to 




Figure 185. — Cheese press, showing a gang of hoops in place. 

adhere into a uniform mass of convenient size and shape for 
handling. The pressure should be uniform, not great 
enough to expel the fat, and should be continued at least 
twenty-four hours. 

After the cheese has been in the press forty-five to sixty 
minutes it should be taken out, turned, the bandage and 
caps straightened, and the whole surface sponged off with a 
cloth wrung from water as hot as the hand can stand. 

Period VIII., Curing. Cheese is allowed to cure in order 
to develop the desired flavor and to become more digestible. 
Upon being taken out of the press the cheese is placed in a 
clean dark room having a uniform temperature of 65°-70°F. 
Each cheese should be turned over on the shelves every day 
during the early stages of curing. After five to seven days 
in the curing room the cheese is removed and dipped in a 
vat of molten paraffin. A thin film of this solidifies all over 
the cheese and prevents loss of moisture. In four to six 
weeks cheese is fairly well cured, though it continues to im- 
prove for three or four months. 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 399 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is milk? 

2. What are the two chief factors which stimulate milk secretion? 

3. Name six factors which influence the percentage of fat in milk 

and show the efTect of each. 

4. What makes possible the testing of milk by the Babcock method? 

5. Why is it possible to separate cream from milk? 

6. Upon what principle does the mechanical separation of cream 

depend? 

7. What is meant by ripening cream? Of what value is it in butter 

making? 

8. What constituents of milk are found in cheese which do not occur 

to any extent in butter? 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. Determine the percentage of fat in milk, cream, skim milk and 

buttermilk. Use the Babcock testing outfit and samples. Fol- 
low directions given in the text, page 390. 

2. Use a cream separator, milk, and pails. Weigh a batch of milk, 

sample and test, compute the amount of fat in the milk, then 
run it through the separator at the temperature and speed 
recommended for that particular machine. When the last of 
the milk has run in, flush out the bowl with a quart of warm 
water. Weigh and test the cream and skim milk and compute 
the amount of butter-fat recovered. 

3. Test the efTect of speed of the separator upon completeness of 

separation and upon the amount and thickness of the cream. 
Use a cream separator, milk, and pails. Warm a batch of milk 
(about three pailfuls) up to 80° F. Weigh out one pailful and 
run it through the machine at the recommended speed. Run 
another pailful through at 5 turns per minute faster than the 
recommended speed and the last pailful at 5 turns per minute 
slower than the recommended speed. Flush the bowl each 
time with one quart of warm water. Weigh and test the skim 
milk and cream from each separation and note any variations 
in amount or in fat content of the cream or skim milk which 
can be attributed to the different speeds. 

4. Test the effect of temperature of the milk upon completeness of 

separation and upon the amount and the fat content of the 
skim milk and cream. Use a cream separator, milk and pails. 
Weigh, sample, and test three pails of milk. Warm one to 65° F., 



400 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

another to 80° F., and a third to 90° F. Run each through 
the separator at the speed recommended for the machine in use. 
Weigh, sample, and test the cream and skim milk from each. 
With the same speed, what effect had the change in tempera- 
ture on the points mentioned in the object of this exercise? 
Note: Because of the effect of heat on the body of the cream it is 
advisable to separate milk at the lowest temperature con- 
sistent with complete separation. 
5. Test the keeping quality of milk under different conditions. 
Secure milk, test tubes plugged with cotton or small bottles, 
and a thermometer. Take the milk as soon as drawn and 
while still warm. Place samples of the fresh milk in three 
test tubes or bottles. Cover and leave one sample at the 
ordinary room temperature, another in running cold water and 
the third in ice water. Take the temperature of the water in 
both cases and record the temperature of the room. Note the 
length of time required for each sample to coagulate. 
What effect has cooling milk on its keeping qualities? 
Note: If equipment is available, exercises in churning and cheese 
making can easily be outlined ])y the instructor. 

REFERENCES 

Milk and Its Products, Wing. 

Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, Eckles. 

Milk: Its Nature and Composition, Aikman. 

Dairy Chemistry, Snyder. 

Dairy Chemistry, Richmond. 

The Science and Practice of Cheese- Making, Publow. 

Modern Methods of Testing of Milk and Its Products, Van Slyke. 

The City Milk Supply, Parker. 

Milk and the Public Health, Roseneau. 

Dairy Technology, Larsen and White. 

Principles and Practice of Butter-Making, McKay and Larsen. 

The Manufacture of Ice Creams and Ices, Frandson and Markham. 

Farmers' Bulletins: 

No. 363. The Use of Milk as Food. 

487. Cheese and Its Economical Uses in the Diet. 

490. Bacteria in Milk. 

602. Clean Milk: Production and Handling. 

850. How to Make Cottage Cheese on the Farm. 

876. Making Butter on the Farm. 

26— 



CHAPTER XL VI 
DWELLING HOUSES. 

The home scenes with which we are surrounded not only 
afford our enjoyment of their beauty as they appeal to us 
through sight, but go deeper and affect our habits and 
characters as well. While many estimable men and women 
have developed amid the crudest surroundings, yet it never- 
theless remains true that beautiful and comfortable homes 
do tend to beget contentment of mind and refinement of 
spirit, and to satisfy a part of our nature as nothing else can. 

Cost of House. In the planning of farm homes as well 
as in the barns, a proper balance should be maintained 
between the size of the farm and the amount invested in the 
buildings. The statistics for the United States show that 
the larger farms have better buildings but at a less propor- 
tionate cost. The farms of less than twenty acres have over 
one third of the capital invested in buildings and machinery. 
Those of over one hundred and seventy-five acres have less 
than one fifth in farm buildings. Money thus invested is 
not only unproductive but is a source of constant cost for 
repairs. 

Planning the House. Farm homes, like city homes, are 
built under varied conditions. It is easy to build an expen- 
sive and convenient home if one has all of the money needed, 
but the diflScult task, and the task which has to be solved 
by the majority of farmers as well as city folks, is to build 
a modern home of sufficient size with the means at hand. 
Here is where a good architect can be of great service; for, 
although you may have had experience in planning, yet after 
you have it all worked out, when bids are called for, you 
will generally find that the cost is double what you have to 

4U1 



402 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



spend. The collection of ideas and features relating to the 
house so that the structure, when finished, may be a home 
to suit the requirements is the part to be worked out by the 
owner, but the general style and material to be employed 
should be the work of the architect. 

One author who is often quoted on this subject has said, 
'Tew persons believe that they have no right to build until 















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Figure 186. — A pleasing outlook from the farm home. 



professional help can be afforded; yet such a position would 
be well taken. Houses stand not for a month nor for a 
year, but for a generation. By them the thrift of a com- 
munity is judged. By them the ideals and taste of a com- 
munity are formed. He who deliberately builds an ugly 
house condemns himself as a poor citizen; while he who 
builds a beautiful house proves himself a good citizen; for 
his personal effort contributed to the public welfare." 

A great deal of time and careful thought should be given 
to the planning. Other homes should be visited and the 
good points noted and copied. The best architects copy. 



DWELLING HOUSES 403 

While in many respects the country home does not differ 
from the city residence, yet it is a mistake to copy exactly 
the houses of the city. The architectural possibilities of 
the country are much greater, and give the architect an 
opportunity to harmonize his design with the surroundings. 

Location. On rather large farms it is often economy of 
time to place the house off the highway and about in the 
center of the farm. Where this is done, the house may be 
faced in the direction which affords the best view. The 
question of economy, however, is often outweighed by the 
fact that country life consists of too much seclusion and 
that it is necessary for proper development to be on the 
highway where one may keep in touch with his neighbors 
and with what is going on about him. 

Exposure. The majority of persons prefer either a south 
or an east exposure. This seems to afford the best arrange- 
ment for sunshine. 

Arrangement of Rooms. As mentioned above, a great 
deal of care and thought should be exercised in working 
out the floor plan, for it is very easy to get rooms entirely 
out of proportion for the use that is made of them; and 
these things are very difficult to remedy. You may see the 
rooms drawn on paper with dimensions and yet be very 
much misled unless you measure out each room and com- 
pare it with a room that you are now using. Doing so always 
prevents wrong impressions as to size. 

The rooms which will be used most, the living and dining 
rooms, should be placed where they will get plenty of fight 
and sunshine, and, if possible, an attractive outlook. Avoid 
placing stairways and hafis on the side of the housej which 
arrangement would cut off the sunshine. A south and west 
exposure for the kitchen is entirely too warm. Any other 
corner is preferable. 

Conveniences. A basement should be provided for a 
laundry, coal room and storage purposes. For country 



404 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 




Figure 187. — Farm conveniencea; 1, pan cupboard; 2, dumb waiter; 3, dish- 
washer; 4, wood box attachment. 



DWELLING HOUSES 405 

homes, a bathroom is more of a necessity than in the city. 
Water systems under pressure have been developed to the 
point where rural residences cannot afford to be without 
them. They provide running water for kitchen, bath, and 
laundry rooms. 

Probably the two special things that should be remem- 
bered in planning a home for the farm, contrasted with one 
in the city, are the necessity for a small office, where the 
accounts are carefully kept, and the business transacted, 
and a washroom which should be placed in the rear of the 
house, and probably opening to the dining room. 

What Rooms to Have. The advisability of a pantry is 
a disputed question, but it more properly belongs to the 
farm house than to the city residence. The kitchen should 
be smaller than those usually constructed for farm houses, 
probably about 12' x 12'; but the dining room should be 
quite large so that in very cold weather it might save heat- 
ing the living room. 

There should be at least one large bedroom. The others 
may be smaller, and in number corresponding to the needs 
of the family. The arrangement of the windows to afford 
proper ventilation is important. 

The living room has superseded the parlor, and seems to 
make available for economic use the space heretofore set 
apart for special occasions. The room should be large and 
cheerful, and, if within the means, a fireplace should be pro- 
vided, since it adds wonderfully to the cheerfulness. 

Lighting. Individual electric lighting systems which are 
very successful have been developed on low voltage for farm 
homes. The latest storage batteries allow some of the electric- 
ity to be stored up while the engine is being used for other pur- 
poses. In this way enough can be stored so that it is not nec- 
essary to have the engine running all the time the lights are on. 

Wherever possible the farm home should be connected 
with company lines furnishing light. These demand less 



406 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

capital and are usually better than small private plants. 
Proper attention to windows helps much in evenings and 
mornings. 

Heating. While stoves will be used for sometime yet in 
most farm homes, it is just a matter of time till they will be 
replaced by the hot air furnace or the hot water system. 
Both systems are satisfactory, but the former costs only 
about one half as much as the latter. The hot water furnace 
requires a httle less fuel. 

QUESTIONS 

1. How expensive ought farm houses to be? 

2. State the chief considerations with regard to planning the house. 

3. Where should the house be located? 

4. Discuss room arrangement. 

5. What conveniences are considered essential? 

6. Give the main points in lighting. 

7. What kinds of heating are worth considering? 

8. Summarize the desirable qualities of a farm house. 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. Visit two or three well-arranged houses. Note the arrangement 

of room and the conveniences. 

2. List improvements that could be easily made in your own home. 

3. Collect pictures. 

REFERENCES. 

The Farmstead, Roberts. 
Farm Management, Warren. 
Farm Management, Boss. 
Farmers' Bulletin: 

607. Farm Kitchen as a Workshop. 

927. Farm Home Conveniences. 



CHAPTER XLVII 
FARM BUILDINGS 

Farm buildings, as a rule, have received very little thought 
in the past as regards their proper location, construction, 
and the convenience that might be afforded by a little more 
careful planning. L. H. Bailey says: 'The buildings surely 
express the man; you know something of his type of mind 
when you see his house and barns and sheds. Awkward, 
straggling, unrelated buildings indicate loose and purpose- 
less ways of thinking. Good farming follows only good 
mental processes; these processes work themselves out in 
the crop schemes, the market business, the buildings. Rarely 
do you see efficient and convenient buildings without seeing 
also a good farmer; and efficient and convenient buildings 
are almost necessarily tasteful buildings." 

Layout. Not only the buildings themselves but the dis- 
position and arrangement of them have relation to their effi- 
ciency and tastef ulness. It is unquestionably true that there 
has been a tendency to scatter the buildings, particularly the 
barns, far beyond the point of efficiency and convenience. 
It would be interesting to make a computation as to how 
much time and labor are wasted each year in doing chores in 
separated buildings. Management concentrates activities. 

Some of the principles governing their proper location are 
as follows: As a rule, the buildings should be placed on 
high ground; but, if this is not available, they should be 
placed on soil that will drain well. They should occupy 
about the center of the farm, as near as possible to save time 
in getting to and from work. Should there be a piece of 
rocky land or waste land that will not grow a crop, filling 
the above requirements, such should be chosen in the interest 
of economy; and usually such can be found. 

407 



408 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

The outbuildings should be near enough to the house 
that accident which might occur at night or while the men 
are away from the barns may be detected readily. Many 
accidents which might have resulted seriously have been 
prevented in this way. 

Site. A southwest slope is desirable; the buildings should 
be placed on the side of the farm nearest the town; they 
should be not less than two hundred feet from the highway; 
and the house should be not less than two hundred feet 
from the barn and not in the leeward of , the prevailing 
winds. Corrals should be on the farther side of the barn. 

Farmsteads are laid out by two plans: (1) the one involv- 
ing separate barns for the cows and horses, known as the 
distributed system, and (2) the concentrated system, where both 
are housed under the same roof. There are advantages and 
disadvantages in both. The former usually requires the 
greater outlay, and hence is less often used. The latter 
system is the one common in the West. 

Under the concentrated system the farmer has a more 
imposing structure. There is a saving in labor, but in case 
of fire there is usually a greater loss. 

Barns. In this region, the barns are usually constructed 
to accommodate horses and cows. Where this is done a 
substantial gate should separate the two sections. 

The stock may be faced in or out, there being advantages 
and disadvantages to both methods. Stalls placed so that 
the animals face in are more convenient in feeding because 
hay thrown into an alley is near the heads of the animals. 
Ventilation is more effective. In facing out, the advantages 
are: (1) ease in removing the litter, (2) ease in milking, and 
(3) ease in handling the cows. Facing in is probably more 
often used. 

A good, serviceable barn of this type is one built with a 
central position for hay, and a lean-to on either side. One 
side is thus used for cows and the other for horses. 



FARM BUILDINGSt 409 

In cattle barns the height of ceihng should be not to 
exceed nine feet. Stalls should be three feet six inches wide, 
mangers two feet four inches wide, gutters sixteen inches 
wide and six inches deep and should lead to manure pit in 
order that the liquid portions of the manure may be saved. 




Figure 188. — A dairy cow and horse barn with double silo. 

Litter and feed carriers are a great convenience, allowing 
the feed to be carried easily to each stall, and the litter to 
be removed just as conveniently. 

Barn Fixtures. In the stalls of the modern dairy barn, 
wood is being rapidly replaced by concrete, iron netting, and 
piping, because they are much more sanitary. The up-to- 
date stanchion now proves satisfactory in every way. It 
is used entirely in the modern barn. Concrete floors for 
the cow barns are satisfactory and sanitary, but should be 
given a rough finish to prevent the animals from slipping. 
They are regarded by some as cold in winter. This defect 
can be relieved by using a temporary wooden floor in winter 
which can be removed during the summer and while clean- 
ing in winter. 

In the horse barn concrete is not so satisfactory, but is 
often used in the back part of the stall with clay under the 
front feet. Clay or wood floors are better. 



410 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

Each horse requires from seven hundred to one thousand 
cubic feet of space. This requires a width of twenty feet 
for a single row of stalls and tliirty feet for a double row. 
Ceilings should be eight feet in the clear. Single stalls are 
four feet six inches wide, and double stalls, eight feet. A 
very shallow gutter of about two inches is useful. 

Hog Houses. These are constructed in two ways: (1) 
the individual or colony house, and (2) the concentrated 
house or swine barn. The advantage of the colony house 
is less danger of spreading disease. If the location becomes 
unsanitary, the house may be moved to better location. 
The house can be put at the opposite end of lot from the 
trough, thus affording the pigs more exercise and keeping 
them free from disturbance at farrowing time. 

The advantages of the concentrated type are (1) that 
it has a better appearance; (2) that it saves time in handling; 
(3) that it is more easily heated in northern climates for 
early litters; (4) and that it saves fencing. 

The individual house is usually made nowadays of 
the A type, and of varied construction; the customary 
dimensions are eight square feet at the bottom and six 
feet eight inches in height, which size requires an eight- 
foot rafter. 

Poultry Houses. Successful poultrymen agree that a 
knowledge and appreciation of the principles involved in 
the proper housing of poultry are necessary to success along 
this line. 

(1) The first point to consider is dry quarters. If an 
earth floor is^used, it should be well-drained and kept dry; 
if concrete is used, gravel beneath or a layer of tarred felt 
through the middle will prevent dampness. (2) Ventilation 
is also vital. Fowls can stand reasonably cold air better 
than impure air, even though it be warm; hence, we have 
changed our choice from the closed heated house to one with 
open front. It is necessary in these houses to have the back 



FARM BUILDINGS 411 

constructed of matched lumber to prevent draughts. (3) 
The house should face the south, thus insuring plenty of 
sunlight and warmth. Sunhght is also a disinfectant and 
germicide. (4) It should be made convenient. Care should 
be exercised in this respect; doors, fixtures, nests, and drop 
boards should be arranged in such a way that they can be 
easily reached and kept clean. The building should be 
located conveniently to the house. (5) To avoid danger 
from rats and mice the building should not be placed near 
a granary. Nests, perches, and interior finish should be as 
smooth and free from cracks as possible so as not to harbor 
mites. (6) The cost oj the house should not exceed $1.25 
a fowl and may be as low as $.60. 

As in the case of hogs, two systems of housing are used: 
(1) the colony type, or small movable house, and (2) the 
permanent type of large house. The advantages and dis- 
advantages of each are similar to those for housing swine. 

Silos. While the silo has not been used to any con- 
siderable extent in the West as yet, the increased interest 
manifest during the last year or two and the number of 
silos that have been built justify a consideration of them. 
The materials used in this section are wood stave, concrete 
block, and concrete in continuous walls, known as mono- 
lithic concrete. These types have all been tried out and all 
give reasonable satisfaction. The old idea, that the acids 
of the silage would affect the concrete and in time cause it 
to crumble, has been entirely overthrown by more recent 
experience and it is conceded that the concrete silo is un- 
questionably a success. Wood silos are slightly cheaper 
than cement, costing about $2.40 for each ton of storage 
capacity while the monolithic concrete costs approximately 
$2.60 to $3.00 and block silos, on the average, about $.70 
per ton more than the monolithic. 

The diameter of the silo is determined by the number 
of cows to be fed, as two to three inches must be used from 



412 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



the top each day to prevent spoihng. The height is deter- 
mined by the number of cows and the number of days they 
are to be fed each season. 

Table XI. — Diameters of Silos 



Number of Dairy Cows 


Feed for 180 
days 


Feed for 240 
days 


Diameter of 
Silo 


8 


29 tons 

36 " 

54 " 

72 " 

90 " 

108 " 

126 " 

144 " 

162 " 

180 " 

216 " 

252 " 

288 " 

324 " 

360 " 


40 tons 


8 feet 


10 

15 


48 ' 

72 ' 

96 * 

120 ' 

144 ' 

168 ' 

, 192 ' 

216 ' 

240 ' 

288 ' 

336 ' 

384 ' 

432 ' 

480 ' 




10 ' 
10 ' 
12 ' 
14 ' 
16 ' 
16 ' 
18 ' 
18 * 
20 * 
22 ' 
22 ' 
22 * 
22 * 
22 ' 




20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 





QUESTIONS 

1. Can a man be judged by his farm buildings? 

2. Describe a good layout. 

3. How near should barns be to the house? 

4. What is considered a good site for the farm buildings? 

5. What are the things to keep in mind in planning the barn? 

6. Discuss floors, stanchions, stalls, and drains for the barn. 

7. How should hog houses be constructed? 

8. Give the essentials of good poultry houses. 

9. How much do silos cost? 

10. What determines their size? 

11. Give sizes for various quantities of feed. 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. Visit barns. Decide what kind is best. Draw rough plans. 

2. Collect pictures. 

REFERENCES 

Farm Structure, Ekblaw. 
The Farmstead, Roberts. 
Farm Buildings, Breeders Gazette Co. 



FARM BUILDING8 413 

Modern Farm Buildings, Hopkins. 
Silos: Construction and Service, M. L. King. 
Farm Management, Warren. 

Transactions America, Society of Agricultural Eng. 
Concrete in the Country, Universal Port. Cement Co. 
Louden Barn Plans, Louden Mach. Co., Fairfield, Iowa. 
Building the Dairy Barn, James Mfg. Co., Fort Atkinson, Wis. 
Farmers' Bulletins: 
No. 438. Hog Houses. 

463. The Sanitary Privy. 

474. Use of Paint on the Farm. 

475. Ice Houses. 
589. Homemade Silos. 

623. Ice Houses and the Use of Ice on the Dairy Farni. 

828. Farm Reservoirs. 

847. Potato Storage and Storage Houses. 

906, The Self-feeder for Hogs. 



CHAPTER XLVIII 
IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 

In a given region all the individuals of a species of wild 
animals or plants are very much alike, while in that same 
region the individuals of the domesticated animals and plants 
are variable. Compare, for instance, the wild grouse with 
the domestic hen, the deer or buffalo with domestic cattle, 
the wild wheat grass and cultivated wheats. The wild 
species are found to be very constant in every case, while the 
domesticated species are divided into breeds or varieties, 
and even these are variable among themselves. The reason 
is not hard to find. The wild species have become fixed 
and definite within small limits through the action of 
nature's laws, but the domestic species have been taken 
from under the action of these laws and subjected to man's 
wishes. 

Nature through countless generations has been producing 
an excess of individuals and then selecting from among this 
throng those best adapted to the conditions of life in that 
particular region. On deserts, for example, most of the 
plants are white or light-colored; their leaves are small, the 
plant thorny or hairy or both; and other modifications ap- 
pear which enable them to survive in hot, dry situations. 
If any offspring of these appear with variations not fitted 
for desert conditions, they die and leave the races fixed and 
adapted as we see them to-day. 

Nature constantly eliminates the weak, the unfortunate, 
and the unfit, Ijy this means keeping tlie race vigorous, 
stable, and fitted to its surroundings. If we wish to main- 
tain our domestic animals and plants even at their present 
standard, we must follow nature's methods. If we wish to 

414 



IMPROVEMEXT OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 415 

improve them rapidly, we must l^e even more rigorous and 
systematic in our selection than nature has been. 

Mendel's Law. Certain characters in plants and animals 
have been found to be transmitted according to a definite 
law called Mendel's law, after its discoverer. This law 
can best be illustrated by a simple example. 

If gray mice and white mice are crossed, the offspring 
will all be gray. If now these hybrid offspring are bred 
together they will have both gray and white progeny in the 
proportion of three gray to one white. If these latter white 
mice are bred together they will have only white progeny the 
saitie as any other pure white mice. If the gray mice are 
bred together one will be found to be pure gray and two will 
be found to be hybrids like their parents and will give one 
fourth white progeny. Out of every four second-generation 
progeny, then, on the average, one will be pure white like 
one parent, and one pure gray like the other parent, and 
two will be hybrids. The gray color is called dominant, 
because it dominates over the white in the hybrids. The 
white is called recessive, because it is hidden in the hybrids. 

There are many color and structural characters in plants 
and animals that never mix or blend but behave in the same 
way in which white and gray do in mice. The white face of 
the Hereford, chestnut color in horses, and the polled con- 
ditions in cattle are common examples of Mendelian dom- 
inants. In interpreting the results obtained in breeding, 
this law must be kept in mind, for it is in action nearly 
everywhere. Surprisingly little blending occurs. 

Table XII.— Illustration of Mendel's Law. 
Parents 1st Generation 2nd Generation 



(pure) (all hybrids) 

Gray ] f Gray' 

Gray 



White 



Gray 
Gray 



1 Gray (pure) 
Gray ' 



2 \ \ (hybrid) 

Gray J 
White (pure) 



416 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 




The Ideal Sought. The most successful breeders have 
been the ones who have had the most definite ideal or ''type" 
in mind, and who have never been lured away from their 
purpose by something that apparently offered more imme- 
diate success. 

The smaller the number of characters desired in the 
''type" the more easily it can be attained. The American 

trotter has been 
bred for but one 
qualification — 
speed. There 
has been no re- 
striction in size, 
color, style, dis- 
position, or con- 
formation. As a 
result, wonderful 
success has been 
attained in de- 
veloping the one quality — speed. Along with this they have 
developed or retained vigor and endurance, because these 
qualities were necessary to the one end sought. 

The dairy breeds have not improved as rapidly in pro- 
duction, because they have had to meet color requirements, 
pedigree requirements, and the show ring standards, as well 
as production tests. Poultry breeding for production has 
been even more handicapped by the standards, because they 
are the creation of the fancier and not of the utility breeder. 
It is a significant fact that nearly all winners in egg-laying 
contests are white fowls, not that white strains are really 
any better, but that a higher percentage of white chickens 
than of any other color reproduce true to color. Thus we 
have a greater number from which to select egg producers. 
Basis of Selection. Much selection, because it lacked 
definite basis, has been of little value. For example, the 



Figure 189. — A plant-breeding plat. 



27- 



IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 417 

greater part of the seed selection practiced by the farmer 
has for its ultimate purpose the maintenance or increase of 
the acre yield, and selection should, of course, be on that 
basis. Instead, then, of selecting the largest and most per- 
fect ear of corn which probably was the only one on a stalk 
standing alone, the somewhat smaller ears from a hill in 
which there were two or three stalks bearing from four to 
six good-sized ears should have been selected. Even better 
would have been the selection of th^ best ear from the 
heaviest-yielding stalk in a proper-sized and heavy-yielding 
hill. If all the field had been like the first hill, the yield 
would have been very low. The first stalk probably lacked 
in productive power or else there would have been two or 
three ears instead of the one. The second stalk has dem- 
onstrated its productive qualities in competition with other 
vigorous rivals in the hill and is more likely to transmit them. 

In the same way not the big potato but those from the 
hill which has the largest quantity of marketable tubers 
should be selected. Bin selection of most seeds is of little 
value. Selecting by fanning so as to obtain only the biggest 
kernels of wheat for seed would probal^ly decrease the yield. 
These kernels probably grew in short heads or from stools 
that had only one or two heads. 

Too many dairy cows have been selected for show ring 
points or because they gave a large amount of milk, with- 
out knowing anything about the fat content. A cow that 
continues to give good results for a number of years is better 
than one that gives a good yield one year and then drops 
down again. In poultry breeding it has been learned that the 
exceptional producer of the first year rarely holds out, but 
that the largest number of eggs and the most vigorous 
strains come from more moderate producers. 

Hereditary Power. The most rapid and definite improve- 
ment of a given strain, however, requires the use of still 
another principle in selection. The potato that goes into 



418 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

the ground decays and disappears. It is only through its 
progeny that we are repaid. The staUion, no matter how 
perfect, is of no value to a community except as measured 
by the colts he leaves. Therefore, in judging a plant or an 
animal, breeders should look not only for good qualities in 
the individual, but also for assurance that those qualities 
will be transmitted. Two animals of the same individual 
merit may differ greatly in ''hereditary power" — the power 
to transmit. 

For example, each of two cows, with the same butter- 
fat production, had four daughters with butter-fat production 
as follows: 

[ il) 599 1 

Average 325 lbs. 



Average 425 lbs. 



The value of these two cows as producers was exactly 
alike. As founders of a herd, cow B's daughters produced 
400 lbs. more of butter-fat a year than the daughters of cow 
A. This difference would amount to at least $100 each 
year in the first generation. The average of the next gen- 
eration very likely would be close to the average of the race. 
In that case, cow B's grandaughters would continue to aver- 
age close to 100 lbs. more of butter-fat than the granddaugh- 
ters of cow A. 

Transmission of Characters. In selecting, the poorest 
in any strain should always be discarded. Following that, 
the average of the race should have as great a weight as the 
individual qualities. In the above example, the second 
daughter of cow B would probably be more valuable as a 
breeder than the first daughter of cow A. In practice, 
the record of every individual in the strain, whether of an- 
cestry, of relative, or of progeny, is of value in determining 





' (1) 600 


Cow A 


(2) 300 


400 lbs/ 


(3) 250 




(4) 150 




' (1) 500 


Cow B 


(2) 450 


400 lbs. 


(3) 400 




(4) 350 



IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 419 

the hereditary power. When this principle is thoroughly 
understood the largest prizes will not be offered for the ex- 
ceptional individual, but for the individual that can show the 
largest number of exceptional progeny. 

Probably the most common mistake made in breeding 
lines by those who are not special students of heredity is in 
expecting the individual of exceptional merit to produce off- 
spring equaling its record. This result will rarely occur. 
This individual was the extreme variation in a particular 
line from the average of its race, and although that variation 
will tend to be transmitted, the tendency to swing back 
nearer the average will be even stronger. If that animal is 
the best in one hundred, the chance that its record will be 
equaled by any of its progeny is, under ordinary conditions, 
only a little more than two in a hundred, and the chance 
that an offspring will exceed its record, not more than two 
in a thousand. 

How Improvement Comes. On the other hand, the 
chances are that some one or more of the next generation 
will equal or exceed this record. If there were one hundred 
animals in the original list, about fifty of them would be 
above ''average" and fifty below. The majority of the 
higher records of the next generation will come from the 
offspring of the fifty best animals. From which one the 
highest will come cannot be told; but, even granting that 
the chance of its coming from the best parent is twice as 
great as from any other one of those above the average, still 
the chance is only about two in fifty, which is probably above 
the truth. 

At first glance, one might conclude from the preceding 
principle that there is no value in pure-bred animals; but, 
instead, it shows why there is. It is the average of the race 
that determines largely what the progeny will be, and the 
average of the pure-bred is much higher than that of the 
scrub. In the same way the average of the progeny of an 



420 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

exceptional individual will be much above the average of 
the race, and if two exceptional pure-bred individuals are 
bred together then the average of the progeny may be 
expected to be still higher. 

Practical Applications. The methods used in improving 
plants and animals differ widely owing to the fact that with 
animals it is possible to select the male as well as the female 
parent, whereas in most plants this is difficult. Then too, in 




Figure 190. — Hen and the eggs laid for six years, first year at left, others in order. 

most animals, reproduction is comparatively slow and it is 
necessary to keep nearly all females, but in plants the 
great majority can be rejected and only the best retained. 

Rapid progress can be made in improving the average of 
the horses or cattle of a community with comparatively small 
expense by the introduction of one or two pure-bred males of 
the right hereditary power. One such male in a community 
should have between fifty and one hundred grade female 
progeny in five years. In ten years five hundred to one 
thousand would carry his blood. The initial cost of an 
exceptional animal would amount to very little when divided 
among so many. By continuing to bring in pure-bred males 
of the same type the standard can be raised from year to year. 
The grade males from this breeding should never be used, as 
they are hybrids and cannot be depended upon to produce 
progeny like themselves. 

In chickens and pigs, which reproduce more rapidly, it 
is usually best to start with a few pure-bred individuals. 



IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 421 

In selecting males, as far as possible take only those 
that have been tested; and in this respect judge them largely 
by their progeny. 

In the improvement of a grain crop like wheat, a number 
of the best stools in the field should be selected and each one 
harvested separately. These should be sown in rows of 
uniform length side by side, and a few of the best rows, after 
the selections have been made, can be used to plant a small 
plot from which pure seed may be obtained or further selec- 
tion made. A pure strain will germinate and ripen alike, 
and is more valuable for milling purposes than the too com- 
mon mixtures. By long continued selection, even these pure 
strains may be further improved. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why are domesticated animals and plants more variable than 

wild ones? 

2. What is Mendel's Law? 

3. Why are the first generation progeny ahke? 

4. Name characters in plants and animals that are dominant. 

5. What is meant by a "type"? 

6. Why has America produced the trotting horse but not a drafter? 

7. What has retarded the breeding of a "dairy type," an "egg-laying 

type"? 

8. What is hereditary power? How is it measured? 

9. Can one "select" seed potatoes from a bin? 

10. How should one proceed to select in order to improve a herd of 

dairy cows? 

11. Are the progeny of an exceptional individual likely to be as good 

as that individual? 

12. Why are pure-bred animals of more value than grades or scrubs? 

13. How should the animals of a community be improved? 

14. How can a farmer improve his wheat crop? 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. Select two areas — one with rich, moist soil in the shade, another 
on a dry barren hillside. Note the difference in the plants, 
kinds, height, breadth of leaves, strength of stems, color. 



422 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

2. Note the number of different breeds of dogs as compared with the 

wolf. 

3. Note the number of kinds of tame pigeons compared with the 

Mourning Dove, chickens compared with the grouse. Get some 
tame mice or guinea pigs of different colors and cross them and 
note the result in the first generation, — the second. 

4. Study milk records of cows in cow-testing associations adjacent. 

Note the comparative production of related animals — daugh- 
ters of one sire. 

5» What would the yield of an acre of corn be if each hill had one 
stalk with one good ear — three stalks with two average ears each? 

6. Make a study of variation in corn hills, in stools of wheat, and 
in potato hills. 

REFERENCES 

Genetics, Walter. 

Principles of Breeding, Davenport. 

Plant Breeding, Bailey and Gilbert. 

Heredity, Thompson. 

Domesticated Plants and Animals, Davenport. 

Variation, Heredity and Evolution, Lock. 

Heredity, Castle. 

Heredity and Sex, Morgan. 

Origin of Species, Darwin. 

American Breeders' Association, 5 Vols. 

Journal of Heredity. 

Journal of Genetics. 

Farmers' Bulletins: 

533. Good Seed Potatoes and How to Produce Them. 

794. Citrus Fruit Improvement. 

803. Horse Breeding Suggestions for Farmers. 



CHAPTER XLIX 

LIGHT AND THE WATER SUPPLY 

Wlierever ordinary care is taken to promote proper sani- 
tation, the water supply must be guarded judiciously, 
because it gathers impurities rather easily. Likewise, light is 
a serious problem in all buildings, because defects are hkely 
to be unnoticed. Neglect of either light or water is fraught 
with so much danger as to deserve constant attention: they 
are of prime importance to best health. 

LIGHT 

In any building designed to be occupied by human beings, 
adequate provision should be made for the entrance of light 
and air. One of the most valuable things in the home, from a 
sanitary standpoint, is ample window space. In the build- 
ing of a house and in the placing of the windows, advantage 
should be taken of the southern sun in order to reach by 
direct sunlight as much of the floor and wall space as possi- 
ble. Light, in addition to its value as a sanitary agent, has 
a marked physiological influence upon those who live in the 
house. Poorly hghted rooms have a decidedly depressing 
effect, physically, upon the housewife especially, who spends 
much time in the house. 

The eye-strain which follows reading in poorly lighted 
rooms tends to encourage undesirable, physiological reac- 
tions such as defective digestion, circulation, and excretion. 
Irritability is increased by working in rooms poorly hghted. 
Although shade trees and shrubs have great value in beau- 
tifying the home and in protecting us from the extreme heat 
of the sun, yet these should be so arranged around the house 
that they do not interfere with the entrance of light. 

423 



424 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

Bacteria do not thrive in the presence of diffused Ught 
and may be killed by the continuous application of sunlight. 
It is obvious, therefore, that the cleanliness of a room, from 
the standpoint of bacteria, will vary directly in proportion 
to the amount of light, and especially sunlight, admitted. 
When it is considered that many disease germs, such as the 
germs causing tuberculosis (or consumption, as the lung 
form of this disease is called) and diphtheria are deposited 
on the floor with the spittle and various other excreta of the 
body, any agent that will kill these is welcome. 

Artificial Light. The Rocky Mountain States are espe- 
cially fortunate in that they comprise an area where elec- 
tricity is generated in large quantities and they consequently 
have available for lighting, as well as for various other pur- 
poses, electricity at reasonable rates. This facility elimi- 
nates, in large measure, the unsatisfactory and dangerous 
gasoline lamp, the candle, and the gas devices so common in 
many other localities. 

Civilization demands that the working day extend far 
beyond the ''sun to sun" of older times. Much of the social 
family life is encompassed in the period following the day's 
labor and preceding retirement at from nine to eleven o'clock. 
In making this period cheerful electricity has contributed a 
large share. 

There are a few general principles which should be fol- 
lowed in the lighting of homes. Contrasts of extreme light 
and darkness should be avoided; the light should be diffused 
as evenly as possible throughout the rooms; bright glares 
should be avoided. For this purpose the reflected or "in- 
visible" light has come very recently into quite general use 
not only in public places but in homes. The globes 
are held in an opaque cup and the light is reflected against the 
ceiling or wall. A frosting over the globe aids materially in 
satisfactorily diffusing the light and avoiding the eye-strain 
of a too concentrated light. 



LIGHT AND WATER SUPPLY 425 

WATER 

Water is necessary for all animal life; the human body is 
composed of about sixty-five per cent of water, which is con- 
tinually being lost by evaporation and through the various 
excreta, and which must, therefore, be replaced. Water 
readily dissolves many substances, and is consequently seldom 
found absolutely pure. Many of the substances in solution 
are, however, harmless. 

Hard and Soft Water. The water usually found in our 
mountain springs is called hard water, because it contains 
calcium salts in solution. It is usually characterized by its 
inability to readily form a lather with soap. Many spring 
waters are rich in carbon dioxide, a gas which arises from 
decaying vegetation of all kinds and which readily dissolves 
in. water. The presence of this carbon dioxide makes it 
possible for the water to hold in solution large quantities of 
the carbonate of lime, limestone. Water on the surface, 
such as rain water, has had no opportunity to dissolve the 
mineral ingredients of soil and is, consequently, soft. Dis- 
tilled water is also devoid of minerals. For drinking purposes 
water should not be very hard, as large quantities of some 
minerals irritate the stomach and intestines. 

Bacteria in Water. Minute plants and animals get into 
practically all drinking water. There may be millions in 
each cubic centimeter, if the water is badly contaminated. 
Usually they are harmless; but there may be the germs of 
such diseases as typhoid fever, dysentery, and cholera. They 
get into the water by means of sewage, usually from persons 
suffering from the disease. When the germs are introduced 
into the bodies of susceptible individuals they multiply 
rapidly, causing disease and often death. 

Sources of Water. The well is a common source of water, 
especially in rural communities. This is a satisfactory 
source provided no water finds its way into the well from 
surface drainage which does not pass through at least 



426 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



fifteen feet of earth, which will filter out practically all the 
undesirable germs. Fifteen feet is usually regarded as a 
minimum depth for a sanitary well, as a less depth affords 
too easy access to surface drainage; but even this depth may 

not be enough to pre- 
vent surface pollution 
in loose porous soil. A 
bored or driven well is 
much safer than an 
open one on account of 
the greater difficulty of 
the entrance of surface 
drainage. 

To be protected am- 
ply, a well should be 
lined as far as the water 
level with cement, 
stone, or similar mate- 
rial. The top should be 
at least six inches above 
the surface of the 
ground, and the sides should slope a sufficient distance 
from the opening to prevent washings and dirt from entering. 
In porous soil it is well to fill in the space between the brick 
and soil with clay. 

Artesian water is very frequently used in Utah and the 
other intermountain states. Such water is usually free from 
contamination, but is generally hard. 

The water from reservoirs and brooks is liable to con- 
tamination and should be used for drinking purposes with 
extreme caution, even where the country is sparsely settled. 
Where water of this nature is used in any considerable 
quantities for drinking purposes careful investigation should 
be made of the source of the water in order to determine 
whether, during its course, it is open to contamination, which, 




Figure 191. — Proper casing for a well. 



LIGHT AND WATER SUPPLY 427 

if discovered, should be abolished. It is a matter of history 
that a great many epidemics, of typhoid fever especially, are 
traceable to poorly protected water supphes. In many 
instances the diseases of one person have been transmitted 
to lower districts through the agenCy of water. Water- 
borne outbreaks of disease usually accrue in the spring or 
early fall due to the fact that rains and melting snow wash 
into the supply a sewage which contains disease-producing 
organisms. Hence it is especially necessary that water be 
guarded during these seasons. 

Purification of Water. Spring water is usually safe if 
it is filtered directly through a sandy hill, provided, in all 
cases, that after coming to the surface it remains uncon- 
taminated. 

On a large scale, water is purified by sand filteration. 
Such a filter is built at slight cost and consists usually of a 
settling bed, which varies in size according to the amount 
of water required, in which the water obtained from a river 
or elsewhere is allowed to stand and drain off from the top. 
This method removes those germs which settle to the bot- 
tom of the reservoir. The water which is drained off the 
top is conducted into a second bed for further purification. 
The second reservoir is usually a pit of earth in the bottom 
of which open pipes are laid, these 'draining into a common 
pipe. The pipes are covered with one or two feet of coarse 
gravel upon which is placed a second coating of sand from 
three to six feet thick. As the water drains through this 
sand and gravel bed, between ninety-five and ninety-nine 
per cent of the organisms are removed. 

The purification process consists of the action of harm- 
less organisms in the soil, which, by forming a thin film upon 
the sand grains, have the power to destroy organic sub- 
stances, including disease germs, in the water as these sub- 
stances pass through during filtration. Such filters tend 
to clog and become very slow in action unless occasionally 



428 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

cleaned. The large number of filters designed to be at- 
tached to water faucets are practically useless. Filtering 
through porcelain or infusorial earth is effective but too slow 
for ordinary uses. The most satisfactory method in the 
case of especially dangerous water is boiling. The palat- 
ability of boiled water may be restored by shaking it up with 
air after boiling. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why do light and the water supply deserve special attention? 

2. Give the essentials of homes well-lighted by day and by night. 

3. How does poor light cause eye-strain? 

4. Explain what is meant by hard and soft water. 

5. In what ways does the source of water affect its purity? 

6. Discuss purification of water. 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. Examine several kinds of lighting systems if they are available. 

2. Investigate the source, the works, and plan of your water system. 

3. Examine homes and schoolroom to see if they are properly lighted. 

4. Collect pictures. 

REFERENCES 

Any textbook of bacteriology. 

Any textbook of sanitation. 

Any textbook of hygiene. 

The Sanitation of a Country House, Bashore. 

The Value of Pure Water, Whipple. 

Primer of Sanitation, Ritchie. 

Primer of Hygiene, Ritchie. 

Rural Hygiene, Ogden. 



CHAPTER L 

GOOD ROADS AND THE TELEPHONE 

Railroads, steamships, and telegraphs have done much 
to diminish the importance of transcontinental or interstate 
wagon roads. Formerly, a man must journey to town to 
talk over a matter with his neighbor or merchant; now he 
can transact much of his everyday business by telephone, 
saving time and travel. Produce, however, must go by 
wagons at least to the railroad station or to the country 
store. Whatever railroads or ships carry, wagons must carry 
first and afterwards, though, sometimes, only for a short 
distance, but too often on poor roads. 

ROADS 
History. Roads seem to date back as far as any part 
of our history. It would seem that roads have been in exis- 
tence ever since wheeled vehicles have been used. The Bible 
states that when Pharaoh's army was pursuing the Israelites 
they had six hundred picked chariots besides many others. 
There was a road when King Cheops built the great pyramids, 
since the stones had to be transferred from quarry to pyra- 
mid. Recently the remains of this road were found in the 
form of a great stone highway. Probal^ly the first stone 
bridge known in history was built at Babylon. Babylonians 
understood also the use of asphalt, for in the great wall built 
around the city of Babylon the stones were cemented together 
with asphalt instead of mortar such as is used nowadays. 

The most important roads of history are those of the 
Romans. Even now the road writers make mention of the 
wonderful road built by Appius Claudius in 312 B. C. This 
was constructed of stone blocks with masonry. If built 
to-day, even with all our modern machinery, it is estimated 
that it would cost from fifty thousand to two hundred thou- 

429 



430 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

sand dollars a mile. Broken stone roads were used in France 
as early as the seventh century. The building of roads in 
that locality was primarily for the rapid transmitting of 
armies. After the fall of the Roman Empire road engineer- 
ing suffered a relapse in Europe, and the road building which 
comes to us as most important is the construction work 
that was done in England. 

Traction Factors. The object of making a road is that 
we may get a load or vehicle with greater ease from one sec- 
tion to another. The resistance from the traction in travel- 
ing may be divided into four kinds: (1) axle friction, (2) 
rolling resistance due to irregularity in the ground, (3) grade 
resistance, and (4) the air resistance which is made greater 
or less, due to the direction of the air current as compared 
with the travel. The axle resistance is about the same on 
all vehicles and on all roads. The air resistance is uncon- 
trollable. So, only two of these four need to be considered. 

The force necessary to pull a loaded wagon along a road 
when the wagon is included in the load varies with the type 
of road, but on level ground is about as follows: on an asphalt 
road from 30 to 70 pounds a ton; on a brick pavement from 
15 to 40 pounds; on earth roads, under ordinary conditions, 
from 50 to 200 pounds; on gravel from 50 to 100 pounds 
per ton; on macadam roads 20 to 100 pounds; on sand, in 
ordinary conditions, from 100 to 300 pounds; on steel wheel 
rut 15 to 20 pounds. Considerable extra draft is required 
by irregularities such as culvert edges or ruts. 

When a load is drawn up a hill the extra work done in 
pulling the load along this road is equivalent to lifting the 
load a distance equal to that from the foot of the hill to the 
top of the hill. If the road has five per cent grade, the load 
will be raised five feet in traveling one hundred feet. On 
an ordinary earth road the tractive force is one hundred 
pounds per ton. Pulling a ton up a grade of five feet in 
one hundred feet is equivalent to doing ten thousand foot- 



GOOD ROADS AND THE TELEPHONE 431 

pounds of work. The work is distributed over a hundred 
feet. Dividing by one hundred, the extra pull, which is 
continuous, is found to be one hundred pounds a ton. If 
the force necessary to draw a load along the level is one 
hundred pounds, then to this must be added the additional 
amount of the tractive force necessary to pull the load up 
the five per cent grade on the same type of road, making 
two hundred pounds per ton. 

What a Horse Can Do. Recent experiments have shown 
that if a horse is to be worked continuously, as in plowing 
or pulling a mowing machine, he can be worked against a 
tractive force equal to about one tenth of his weight. For 
very short periods the horse may be made to work against 
even up to one half of his weight and for a fraction of a 
second up to three fourths of his weight. But as soon as 
the time is extended at which he is driven at more than one 
tenth of his weight he will begin to perspire and fret against 
the load. Actual experience has shown that a good average 
horse can draw about 3,500 pounds on a good road. When 
grade is added to this, we find that a team of 1,500-pound 
horses should be able to pull as follows: 



cent grade 




Pounds 


1 


About 


6,000 


2 


ii 


5,000 


3 


Little less than 


4,000 


4 


About 


3,380 


6 


« 


2,950 


10 


u 


1,972 


15 


ii 


720 


20 


Only about 


300 



From this can be seen the necessity of making better 
grades and smoother roads in most country districts. 

Types of Roads. The types of road regularly constructed 
in our locality include earth roads, gravel roads, macadam 
roads, sand-clay roads, and concrete pavements. 

Earth roads vary greatly and include those made by 
merely traveling on them, and those graded, drained, and 



432 WE8TERN AGRICULTURE 

smoothed. In the construction of an earth road there are 
two essentials, — one to keep the water off or out of the road, 
and the other to keep the road smooth. The drainage con- 
sists in two principles: (1) drain away the water which 
renders the road soft and boggy, and (2) prevent the water 
which falls upon the road from remaining there and making 
the road muddy. The first must be accomplished by drain 
ditches; the second by making the road of such a shape that 
water will not stay on it. A cross-section of an earth road 
will vary some with the character of the material used. 

In the construction of earth roads the grade and shaping 
of the grade can be largely done with a grader. The trac- 
tion engine is more desirable than horses, because it packs 
the road and is more steady in the pull. Earth roads in 
thickly populated districts should probably not be built 
wider than 30 feet; in more sparsely settled districts 20 feet 
will be sufficient. Every time a load is drawn over the earth 
road when it is moist there is a tendency for it to rut. As 
soon as the material in the road is in a condition to be 
worked, a drag should be pulled over it first on one side and 
then on the other, throwing the piles of earth which accumu- 
late on the outside of the wagon track into the rut. That 
part of the earth road which received the travel will be com- 
pletely packed and the material under the wheel will become 
so firm that wagons will not cut in. If earth roads are to 
remain in good form, the ruts should be filled by dragging 
after each rainstorm during the summer. 

Gravel roads differ only from earth roads in the usual 
method of laying from six inches to a foot of gravel oi;i top 
of the road after grading has been done. Gravel should not 
be put on an earth road until properly shaped, if shaping is 
to be done, or it will always result in the loss of much gravel 
that has been hauled. The gravel should be carefully spread 
before being traveled on and not merely dumped in the 
road. If it is not carefully spread and worked over, the 

28— 



GOOD ROADS AND THE TELEPHONE 433 

road will be hummocky and these irregularities are hard to 
move. No large stones should be allowed to remain in the 
gravel close to the surface of the road. It is found a good 
thing to harrow the road with a steel harrow after the gravel 
has been hauled. The harrow will bring to the surface large 
stones which will have to be removed sooner or later. These 
stones may be placed in the bottom of the ungraveled por- 
tion. It is well to follow the macadam rule, that no stone 
should be left in the top dressing of a gravel road which can- 
not be put in the mouth. Gravel roads can be dragged in 
the same way as earth roads and should receive about the 
same treatment, if they are to be kept smooth. If ruts 
occur in the gravel road, the ruts should be filled with good 
gravel and no more put in than enough to fill up the hole. 
If the weather is dry, a pail of water poured on the gravel 
will help materially in cementing it into place. 

Macadam roads are used in the East but they do not 
seem to be a success in arid sections. They ravel to pieces 
if allowed to become dry. Cost and maintenance are both 
beyond the means of the sparsely settled sections. 

Concrete Roads. Of the many types of high-class roads 
the one which is probably giving the greatest satisfaction 
is the concrete road, made of Portland cement and gravel 
or broken stone. The road is usually built from 16 to 18 
feet in width and from 6 to 8 inches in thickness, with ex- 
pansion joints every 50 feet. The road should be built 
of carefully selected material. In foundations and building 
concrete structure is seldom tested to above 10 per cent of 
its actual strength. In road building, the strain will be 
near the maximum. Therefore, the material should be the 
best and carefully tested before being placed. 

Cement roads are often reenforced with wire meshing, 
this being placed about midway between top and bottom. 
Reenforced concrete has given better satisfaction than that 
which has not been reenforced. 



434 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

Concrete roads are well-adapted to automobile traffic 
and should be maintained with but little expense for upkeep. 
The hfe of the road is not well known, but it is probably 
from 30 to 50 years. Even after the surface begins to wear, 
a layer of asphaltic preparation placed over the concrete, 
as a base, will again make the road one of high standard. 

Sand-clay roads are made by mixing these two types of 
soil. Sand roads are good only when wet; clay roads only 
when dry. A layer of sand hauled on a sticky clay road and 
worked into the surface will make a road which will be firm 
and hard the year around. This is known as a sand-clay 
road. A layer of clay worked into the surface of sand will 
make a firm road even when dry and this is known as a 
clay-sand road. These roads can be dragged and smoothed 
as the earth road. When sand or clay is not convenient 
the material must be carried. The expense is thus increased. 

THE TELEPHONE 

Not only does the telephone aid in the transaction of 
business, but it saves the farm home from isolation. With 
telephone and rural free mail delivery, any farm home is in 
touch with the best neighboring community, and good roads 
enable the family to take personal part in its social, educa- 
tional, religious, and political life. 

Mechanism of the Telephone. In construction, there 
are four essential parts to a telephone: (1) transmitter, (2) 
receiver, (3) wires, and (4) central station. Electricity is 
the means of transfer; the four parts are the tools by which 
it accomplishes this. The transmitter is a funnel-shaped 
mouthpiece, behind which a metallic membrane picks up 
the vibrations of sound and transmits them to the charged 
wire. At the other end, the receiver is a membrane that 
receives the vibrations from the wire and repeats them to 
the ear. The central station is simply an arrangement of 
some kind for connecting various lines of communication. 



GOOD ROADS AND THE TELEPHONE 435 

In some sparsely settled districts the central station is lack- 
ing, and a code of long, short, and repeated rings, enables a 
person to recognize his call. Electricity must of course be 
furnished by a power plant. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Give a brief history of roads. 

2. Why are they important? 

3. Wherein is energy expended in drawing loads? 

4. How does the steepness of the grade affect the draft of a load? 

5. Name and describe the kinds of roads. 

6. Define: telephone, telegraph, transmission, receiver, central, and 

enunciation. 

7. Describe the mechanism of a telephone. 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. Secure or make a strong box three or four feet long by two or 

three feet wide and at least a foot deep. In the middle of the 
bottom, place six inches of ordinary soil. Slope this off until 
the slope just reaches the edges. Spread over the top of this 
about 3 inches of clay, over this about an inch of sand, and 
then about 2 inches of gravel as small as a walnut or smaller. 
A rounding slope of the surface should be maintained. 
Pound thoroughly— right thoroughly— and let dry. Tear away 
the box. You now have a small model of a reasonably good 
earth road. 

2. If an old telephone is available, take it apart and examine. Ob- 

serve the use and mechanism of each part, especially of the 
transmitter and receiver. Compare these with the human voice 
box and ear, respectively. 

REFERENCES 

Road-Making and Maintenance, Aitken. 

A Textbook on Roads and Pavement, Spaulding. 

Farmers' Bulletins: 

No. 338. Macadam Roads. 

505. Benefit of Improved Roads. 

597. The Road Drag and How It Is Used. 



CHAPTER LI 



THE FARM COMMUNITY 



According to the definition used by the United States 
Census Bureau in the last census, the term rural community 
includes those aggregations of people numbering 2,500 or 
less. This definition is arbitrary and not scientific, but it 
has the merit of being definite and as such can be effectively 
used in measuring rural depopulation. 

Problems of Rural Communities. The rural problems 
discussed in this chapter are those which are primarily social 
in character. Most of them are connected in some way with 
one or more of the following: rural depopulation, rural health 
and sanitation, rural recreation, the rural school, and the 
rural church. 

Rural Depopulation. The widespread movement of the 
people of the United States to the large centers of popu- 
lation has l^een one of the most important tendencies, from 
a sociological point of view, in modern times. 

The extent of this movement is shown by comparing 
the percentage of increase of the population of the entire 
United States with that of the rural and urban population, 
respectively. The following table shows the relative 
increase for the last thirty years: 

Table XIII. — Increase in Population in Percentage — General 





1910 


1900 


1890 


Average 


Total population 


21.0 
34.8 
11.2 


20.7 
35.5 
12.1 


24.9 
53.7 
13.6 


22.2 


Urban " 


42.7 


Rural " 


12.3 



The average for the last three decades shows that the 
urban population has increased 3.47 times as fast as has 
the rural population. 



436 



THE FARM COMMUNITY 



437 



For the United States as a whole, there has not been an 
absolute decrease in rural population, but in a few sections 
and in a number of states there has been an actual decline 
in the rural population during the last ten years. The New 
England States lost 5 per cent; the East Central States lost 




Figure 192. — Home Economics Association. 

2 per cent; New Hampshire, Vermont, Ohio, Indiana, Ilh- 
nois, Iowa, and Missouri, lost in ratios varying from 7.2 per 
cent in Iowa to .5 per cent in Illinois. 

The following tables show the facts with reference to 
the rural population in the State of Utah. These figures 
reflect conditions which may be regarded as fairly typical of 
the mountain states: 

Table XIV. — Increase in Population in Percentage — Utah 



Years 


Population 


Increase 


Inc. in 
Urljan 


Inc. in 
Rural 


1900-1910 


373,351 
276,749 


34.9 
31.3 


59.9 
40.0 


18.9 


1890-1900 


27.0 



Urban population increased a little more than three times 
as fast as rural during the last ten years. 



438 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



The following table shows the percentage of the total 
population which is rural or urban : 



Table XV.— Per Cent of Total Population— Utah 




1880-1890 


1890-1900 


1900-1910 


Total Population of Utah. . . 
Urban Population 


100 
35.7 
64.3 


100 
38.1 
61.9 


100 
46.3 


Rural Population 


53.7 







Although the above shows the state to be largely rural, 
yet there is a substantial decline in the percentage of rural 
population during the last twenty years. 

The tendency for cities to grow more rapidly than towns 
is strikingly shown, if we compare the rate of growth of the 
four largest cities of the state with that of the rural popu- 
lation. The last two censuses show the following: 

Table XVI. — Comparative Urban Increase in Percentage — Utah 



Years 


State 


Logan 


Provo 


Ogden 


Salt Lake City 


1890-1900.... 
1900-1910.... 


31.3 
34.9 


19.4 
38.0 


9.9 
44.3 


9.6 

56.8 


19.4 
73.4 



The rate of growth for the state as a whole increased only 
3.6 per cent, but that for the cities increased more than 53 
per cent. 

Causes of Rural Migration. It is conservatively esti- 
mated that thirty per cent of increase in the city population 
of the United States has been due to the migration from the 
country to the city. There are two groups of causes for this 
migration. (1) Those primary forces which lie deep in civili- 
zation and are the fundamental causes of progress itself. 
We must expect that in the future, as in the past, young men 
and young women, born in the country with excellent vitality 
and possessing not only great capacity for work but ambi- 
tion to succeed in the big things in the world, will continue 
to go where that work is — where life is complex. Any 



THE FARM C0M3IUNITY 



439 



attempt to stop this movement wouldresiiltinfailureand do 
more harm than good. (2) Other factors which may be 
called secondary lie in the relative merits and demerits of 
rural social institutions and conditions. Some of these 
which result in the city drift may be mentioned: failure of 
the farm community to supply necessary recreation and 
enjoyment, bad sanitary conditions, poor schools, and 




Figure 193. — A farm community under irrigatiua canal. 

inadequate churches. These conditions may be gradually 
improved, and, if they can be improved, there will no doubt be 
some check of the movement. It is significant that the tre- 
mendous city drift has gone on in spite of much back-to-the- 
farm preaching. Any plan of successful rural social improve- 
ment must aim to improve conditions for those on the farm 
rather than to check the movement from the farm. 

Rural Recreation. An important function of play is 
the breaking down of prejudice and misunderstanding in 
society and the establishment of a basis for co-operation. 
Before co-operative enterprises can be made successful a 
''consciousness of kind" and the ability on the part of every 
member of the group to understand and sympathize with 
the interests of every other member are necessary. This 



440 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

ability is conspicuously lacking among farmers. Farmers* 
Unions and other co-operative organizations have been rather 
unsuccessful — the farmer has been too individualistic. Play 
and recreation have not been important factors in his life 
and he is not in sympathy with attempts to supply these 
things for his children. But the demands of the young men 




Figure 194. — Typical Utah village community. 

and women are insistent; they must have recreation. They 
break away from the discipline of their parents and take 
the crude and unregulated recreation which the ordinary rural 
community affords or they migrate to the city where more 
opportunities for play and recreation are offered. The 
first choice means demoralization, loss of ambitions, and 
wasted life. The second choice means that the rural com- 
munities are to lose the best element in their population. 

In all the age groups below twenty years, the rural pop- 
ulation has the largest percentage, but in all the other groups 
up to sixty-five years and over the cities have the majority. 
This fact shows a decided tendency on the part of both 
young men and young women to seek the places of greater 
recreational advantage. If this tendency is to be counter- 
acted at all, it must be done, not by trying to curtail play 
in our rural communities, but by organizing and controlling 
it. Play supervisors ought to be appointed. The farmers 
themselves must take a more genuine interest in the play 



THE FARM COMMUNITY 441 

activities of their children. The difficulties in the way of 
making farm life attractive become greater when we get into 
grazing and dry-farm sections. Here the farm is large, the 
population scattered and practically no possibility of 
effective and satisfying social intercourse and recreation. 

Rural Health and Sanitation. The unsanitary and un- 
healthful conditions which have prevailed in the past on the 
farms have no doubt had much to do with rural migration. 
The farm buildings have been poorly built and inadequately 
ventilated and the yards have been breeding grounds for 
disease germs and disease-carrying insects. The worst con- 
ditions have no doubt centered about the milk production 
and the water supply each of which has received attention 
elsewhere. Here the difficulty lies in the fact that public 
sentiment, strong enough to eradicate the unsanitary dairy 
equipment, cannot be developed and financial co-operation, 
sufficient to construct adequate water systems, cannot be 
secured. The problem is a social one and can be solved only 
when the population is large and compact enough to make 
community life and activity possible. 

The Rural School. Another rural social institution which 
is responsible for the movement of some of the rural popula- 
tion to the city is the school. ''Over 95 per cent of the 
social energy of the nation is directly devoted to matters of 
getting a living." About 50 per cent of rural school children 
never get beyond the seventh grade. Between 90 and 95 
per cent of the population either remain in the community 
in which they are born and reared or go to communities 
whose interests and conditions are similar. The demands 
upon the rural elementary schools are, therefore, enormous, 
since they must give one half of the school population all 
the training it will ever get and must help 95 per cent of 
country people to understand the prevailing local conditions 
and agencies for the winning of their daily bread. That the 
country school is failing to meet these demands is too evident. 



442 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



The following defects of rural schools may be mentioned : 

(1) They are poorly supported financially. The country 
schools have sixty-seven of every hundred school children 
and receive only $33 out of every $100. The cost of teach- 
ing a city child averages $33 a year, whereas $13 a year 
is all that is spent on the average child in the country. 

(2) The school houses are poorly built, have no satis- 
factory ventilation, and are wholly inadequate to be used 
as a social center. Moreover, they are not sufficiently 
equipped for the giving of vocational training which is needed 
so badly by farm children. 




Figure 195.— Young farmers and college students studying breeds of swine; a method 
of community improvement. 

(3) The schools are small and the schooi year short. 
In a majority of the states, between 45 and 60 per cent of 
the schools have fewer than ten pupils each. There is, there- 
fore, a lack of stimulation to do effective work. When the 
school year is only six or seven months in length the pupils 
do not advance rapidly in comparison with the city child. 
Besides, short periods of employment do not offer enough 
encouragement for the teachers to equip themselves for the 
highest kind of service. 



THE FARM COMMUNITY 



443 



(4) The school curriculum is not adapted to the needs 
of farm life. The textbooks are stereotyped, designed to be 
hard rather than useful, and the material does not touch the 
lives of the pupils through their own experiences. The 
literature which is used is about city people and city condi- 
tions and the problems the pupils are asked to solve imply 
city life. The ideals held out are not drawn from the country 
and the heroes described are not farmers. These defects, 
however, are rapidly being remedied. 

Much improvement can likely be made through the con- 
solidation of rural schools. This would mean that the 




Figure 196. — Farms in an irrigated district. 

schools could be graded better, that larger numbers of pupils 
would work together, that better equipments could be had, 
and that the school year would be lengthened. Supervision 
could be more effective and the schools probably could be 
conducted more economically. Perhaps the most important 
advantage would be the establishment of a rural social 
center and the development of the right kind of leadership. 
The Country Church. As nearly as can be judged from 
the few investigations, it seems safe to say that the vitality 



444 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

and the power of the country church are decHning. This is 
shown in a number of ways. (1) Church membership is 
increasing very slowly, and, in some sections, decreasing. 
(2) Expenditure for the support of the church and the pay- 
ment of ministers, measured in terms of purchasing power, 
is on the decline. (3) Church attendance is decreasing. 
A study of the country church in two counties, one in New 
York State and one in Vermont, showed that church attend- 
ance has fallen off over 30 per cent in twenty years. (4) The 
training of the country minister seems to be inadequate 
to meet modern demands and he is failing to take the leader- 
ship he formerly did. 

The causes for this decline group themselves about the 
facts that we have too many churches and that the people 
are losing confidence in the ability of those that we have, 
to help solve their problems. The church has had too much 
confidence in the finality of its own organization and has 
failed to adjust itself readily to changing conditions. One 
remedy seems to be in the socialization of the church. More 
time must be spent in studying the economic and social 
activities of the community and less time in poring over 
ancient literature in search for a defense of this or that ritual 
or point of doctrine. The ordinary person in our rural com- 
munities is beginning to see economic and social problems 
looming big on his horizon. He wants the church, as well 
as the other social institutions, to help him solve these prob- 
lems; he has no interest in long ecclesiastical controversies. 

The church, however, is based on a universal desire to 
worship, and its chief function is to provide a means for the 
expi'ession of that desire. If it adequately performs that 
function it will be in the future, as it has been in the past, 
the most powerful social agency in our rural communities. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why is a definition of a city based solely upon population, scien- 
tifically inadequate? 



THE FARM COMMUNITY 445 

2. Can you suggest other causes, not given in this chapter, for the 

decrease in our rural population? 

3. To what extent can the city drift be checked? 

4. Why do farmers oppose Saturday-afternoon baseball games? 

5. Would a law compelling farmers to observe a half holiday once 

a week be advisable? 

6. What conditions surrounding the farm home make the life of a 

farmer's daughter uninviting? 

7. Why has there been much opposition on the part of farmers to 

the establishment of consolidated rural school districts? 

8. Why is it so difficult to get farmers to produce clean milk? 

9. Should the school or the church be the social center? 

10. Why do young people dislike to go to church? 

11. Which is more important, the church or the principles for which 

the church stands? 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. Make a map of your community, showing the location of homes, 

streets, parks, schools, churches, and any other public buildings. 
How might it have been made more convenient? 

2. Why do the young people leave your community? 

3. List the ways in which life in your community could be made more 

agreeable for boys and girls. 

REFERENCES 

An Introduction to Rural Sociology, Paul L. Vogt. 

The Country Church and the Rural Problem, Butterfield. 

Society, Its Origin and Development, Rowe. 

Rural Sociology, Gillette. 

The Thirteenth Census. 

Farm Management, Warren. 

Rural Improvement, Waugh. 

The Principles of Rural Economics, Carver. 

The Country-Life Movement, Bailey. 

The State and the Farmer, Bailey. 

Educational Resources of Village and Rural Communities, Hart. 

The Rural-Life Problem of the United States, Plunkett. 

Report on National Vitality, Fisher. 

Report of the Country Life Commission, 1908. 

Challenge of the Country, Fiske. 

Rural Wealth and Welfare, Faircbild. 

Rural Hygiene, Ogden. 



CHAPTER LII 
MARKETING FARM PRODUCTS 

In the latter half of the eighteenth century several me- 
chanical inventions were introduced in manufacturing, which 
revolutionized the industrial world. The spinning jenny, 
the power loom, and other power machines, completely upset 
the old methods of manufacturing and took from the farm 
home much of the work previously done there. According 
to the old methods, a small amount of capital was required 
in any manufacturing process; the new processes were to 
require extensive buildings, great investment of capital, and 
large bodies of laborers under a single head. In the early 
part of the nineteenth century steam was employed for pur- 
poses of power and also in transportation. In many cases 
steam or water power took the place of human labor, and, 
instead of doing many things, men came to confine them- 
selves to one operation. Instead of one locality's having a 
highly diversified industry, it concerned itself with the pro- 
duction of one or, at most, a few products. 

Specialization in Agriculture. In time, this influence 
became felt in agriculture. To-day we have the southern 
states producing cotton for the world ; the middle states pro- 
ducing corn; the middle-western and northwestern states, 
wheat; California specializes in grains and fruits; and the 
New England and middle Atlantic states have become 
centers in manufacturing. The result is that the producer 
and the consumer of products have become widely separated, 
and the problem of transferring the finished article easily 
and cheaply from the final producer to the consumer has 
become a question of large proportions. 

446 



MARKETING FARM PRODUCTS 447 

The Middleman. In an effort to bring about this 
exchange there has grown up a class of persons generally 
designated as middlemen. They undertake the task of pur- 
chasing the finished article from the producer and supplying 
it as needed to the consumer. This condition is general to 
all industries that manufacture for a widely distributed 
market. In manufacturing, the proprietor had so much 
capital involved that he had to devise cheap methods of 
distribution to send his products, at a reasonable price, to 
the great consuming public. Usually, being a well-trained 
business man, he did much to solve the problem for himself. 

Marketing of Farm Crops. It was different with the 
farmers. Considered in the aggregate, they constitute the 
largest industrial and capitalistic class in the nation; but, 
when considered severally, the units are small and widely 
separated. Besides, farmers work alone and in contact with 
nature and are strongly individualistic. Co-operative effort 
is, therefore, difficult. The result has been that they have 
competed intensely among themselves, having, as a conse- 
quence, received very low returns on their labor. 

The low prices paid to the farmer have not always meant 
cheap goods for the consumer. In too many cases a large 
number of middlemen have come between the farmer and the 
people who consume his products. These middlemen as a 
class, for the service rendered to society, have undoubtedly 
received too large a share of the total output. It has been 
estimated by the Secretaiy of Agriculture, that, on an aver- 
age, for every dollar the consumer pays for farm products, 
the farmer receives only fifty cents. The balance goes to 
the middlemen. 

Co-operative Marketing. The leading farmers of the 
country have been thinking about this situation and have 
reached the conclusion that 50 per cent is too large a pro- 
portion to pay for the service rendered. In order to elimi- 
nate, as far as possible, this burdensome charge on their 



448 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

industry they have, in a great many cases, organized co-op- 
erative marketing associations so as to do their own mar- 
keting. In raising staple crops where the market prices are 
fairly standard for the whole country, the profits obtained 
are the results of cheap, economic, and efficient means of 
production; on the other hand, in specialized farming, very 
much more depends upon an efficient system of marketing. 

In the case of wheat, oats, corn, rye, etc., there are 
usually standard prices for the whole nation; but with such 
specialities as oranges, peaches, eggs, and strawberries, 
almost everything depends upon getting the products to the 
consumer in prime condition and at a price so low as to give 
a wide market and yet net the producers a fair return. It is 
not to be implied, that co-operative organization is not 
desirable for standard crops, but that it is not so essential 
for success. 

Farmers* Associations. Co-operative farmers' associa- 
tions have met their greatest success in specialized farming 
and institutions closely allied therewith such as fruit-grow- 
ing and marketing, cow-testing, cow, horse and corn-breeding, 
grain elevators, creameries, meat-packing, egg-selling, irri- 
gation canals, telephone and insurance companies, credit 
associations, and many other industries. In fact, many of 
these associations have been eminently successful, e. g., 
California Fruit Growers' Exchange, Hood River Apple 
Growers' Association, Rocky Ford Melon Growers' Associa- 
tion, and others too numerous to mention. A co-operative 
association may be organized under the laws of the state; 
yet it differs from an ordinary capitalistic corporation. In 
the ordinary corporation the primary purpose is to make 
dividends on the capital invested; but the primary purpose 
of co-operative marketing is to better the economic conditions 
of its members by securing better prices for the products of 
the farm. For this reason, the membership, as far as pos- 
sible, should be confined to actual farmers, who should take 

29— 



MARKETING FARM PRODUCTS 449 

precautions not to permit the control to pass into the hands 
of a nonagricultural class. 

Farmers' co-operative associations are usually organized 
under the corporation laws of the state. Unfortunately these 
laws are not well suited to meet the needs of these associa- 
tions. They were enacted primarily to meet the needs of 
stock corporations. 

Organization. The organization must concern itself with 
local affairs and must also market the products, which gen- 
erally involve a wide area. To meet these two conditions it 
is desirable to have two organizations closely federated. The 
local organization concerns itself with packing, spraying, 
inspection, and with the purchase and control of such 
machinery as may be used locally in common. To establish a 
proper system of effective marketing is generally too expen- 
sive for a local unit. It would frequently eat up the entire 
crop in expenses. To handle this problem a federated sys- 
tem uniting the local units and covering a large area has 
proved very efficient. By dividing the expense among a 
large number of local units the quantity of products to be 
sold becomes so great that the burden of expense for any 
unit is correspondingly small. Moreover, the total income 
is sufficiently large to secure the services of competent and 
efficient employes. In case of the citrus fruits of California 
local organizations were formed, which have been federated 
into districts, and the districts into a state-wide association 
known as the California Fruit Growers' Exchange. The 
local organizations oversee the packing of the fruit, own and 
operate much machinery in common, and own and erect 
packing and storage houses. The districts forward the daily 
price quotations, secure cars, a.nd arrange for the loading 
and shipping of the cars from the various localities. The 
Exchange advertises the fruit all over the world, secures a 
market for it, and supplies the various districts with daily 
price quotations. In this way the expense is localized where 



450 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

it pertains to local operations alone, and is state-wide where it 
pertains to the whole industry. Its chief advantage is that 
it so distributes the financial burden that it is light on all. 

The Board of Directors will naturally be selected by the 
members. The number on the Board should be large enough 
to be fairly representative of the members of the association; 
but on the other hand it should not be too large, as it then 
becomes so cumbersome and expensive that it is inoperative. 
This result frequently happens when the organization is 
made up of several geographical units, each of which insists 
on representation. The Board, therefore, becomes inactive 
and the control passes over entirely into the hands of the 
manager* The duty of the Board of Directors is not to 
manage the association, but to elect a manager to oversee 
the organization; to satisfy themselves that its affairs are 
honestly and consistently managed, and to offer suggestions 
to the manager, which, if serviceable, he is to carry out. 

Stock-holding. Probably the best thing, as the laws 
now stand, is to organize a corporation. In the organization 
of a corporation, however, several precautions should be 
taken. The amount of stock that any one member may 
secure should be strictly limited ; likewise the maximum num- 
ber of votes that any stockholder may cast. If this limita- 
tion is not observed, the organization is, in the course of 
time, likely to pass into the control of a few farmers. It is 
also advisable to fix a maximum rate of dividend to be paid 
on the stock, which removes the motive to become large 
stockholders. In general, the dividends should not exceed 
the normal rate of interest. If the earnings exceed this 
amount they should be divided among the members accord- 
ing to the amount of business transacted. When stockhold- 
ers offer their stock for sale, the articles should provide that 
the society shall have the first right of purchase. If such 
regulations are not provided, the association, if successful, 
will pass under the control of a few men; new farmers will 



MARKETING FARM PRODUCTS 451 

not be admitted, and it will be conducted as an ordinary 
dividend earning corporation. In fact, many associations, 
organized without capital and on a nondividend paying 
basis, have proved eminently successful, the expenses being 
met by an assessment according to acreage or according to 
the amount of business done. 

Obligation of Growers. Whatever scheme is followed, 
the farmers must be obligated in some way to support the 
association financially, either by the purchase of stock or by 
a contract. Powell, in his work on "Co-operation in Agri- 
culture," says, 'The membership agreement is the founda- 
tion stone on which the stability of a farmers' co-operative 
business association is reared." Experience has shown that 
an association dependent upon its members' honor for sup- 
port will fail. If higher prices are offered, the farmers will 
leave and sell elsewhere. The result is that the association 
fails unless it has provided against such a contingency, and, 
when it does fail, prices fall to their former level. The 
farmer must enter into an agreement which provides that, 
in case he exercises his right to sell elsewhere, he will pay the 
association a certain percentage of the sale price to help 
defray its expenses. 

The Manager. The board of directors should elect as 
manager a capable business man who understands the busi- 
ness at hand. Then he should be given sufficient author- 
ity to do the business. To get such a man, the organization 
must pay him well. To place the work in the hands of an 
untrained and inexperienced man spells failure. Too often 
the mistaken policy is pursued of selecting an incapable 
manager because he is cheap. A competent man will 
demand at least as much pay as he can get from a pri- 
vate employer; no other man can succeed. 

Finally, the association must avoid the introduction of 
partisan pohtics. They have always disrupted the com- 
mercial organizations they have, entered. Each association 



452 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

should remain strictly a business enterprise and conduct 

itself as such. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why has a change in factory processes affected marketing? 

2. In what ways has agriculture become specialized? Does this 

affect marketing problems? In what way? 

3. Why do farmers have trouble about marketing their products? 

4. How is co-operative marketing conducted? 

5. Name and describe some farmers' associations. 

6. How are they organized? 

7. What do they buy and sell? 

8. What are the obligations of the farmers to such an organization? 

9. How is the manager chosen? 

10. Should there be such an organization in your neighborhood? 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. Debate the question: 

Resolved, That there should be a farmers' co-operative organiza- 
tion in this vicinity. 

REFERENCES 

Marketing of Farm Products, Weld. 
Co-operation in Agriculture, Powell. 
Rural Wealth and Welfare, Fairchild. 
Farm Management, Warren. 
The Young Farmer, Hunt. 
Farm Development, Hays. 
Co-operation Among Farmers, Coulter. 
Principles of Rural Economics, Carver. 
Markets for the People, Sullivan. 
Farmers' Bulletins: 

809. Marketing Live Stock in the South. 

922. Parcel Post Business Methods. 



CHAPTER LIII 
THE FARM HOME 

The underlying principle which should guide all the rela- 
tions of the farm home is simpUcity. Simplicity in the home 
is not an indication of inferiority or of decadence, but is the 
vital characteristic of all that is best in human existence. 

One of the grave evils of life everywhere has been the 
tendency of persons to assume to have more than they really 
possess, and to appear to be what they are not. Sham of 
any kind is demoralizing. It is a sort of dishonesty that 
will corrode the whole being, making the life unsatisfactory. 
The family should have what it can afford, but no more, of 
food, clothing, furniture, amusements, and luxuries. If the 
grounds surrounding the house are laid out carelessly or 
with great elaboration without regard to use; if the house is 
badly designed ; if there is a great deal of unnecessary orna- 
mentation and lack of harmony — wherever these conditions 
prevail, there will be a tendency to buy cheap, showy things, 
all of which react on the dwellers to make them careless 
and unreal. 

Home Furniture. Home furnishings need be neither 
elaborate nor expensive. Let the family buy what it needs, 
start with a few simple articles of furniture, and add new 
ones as it is able; but let all be of some uniform design and 
free from unnecessary ornamentation. 

Home Art. All about the house, its architecture, building 
material, and paint, the wall colors, carpets, and rugs should 
so blend as to make, with the lives of those who dwell there, 
a simple, harmonious unit. At first, little that is purely 
decorative need be bought; but that little should be selected 
with care, as it is distinctive of one's taste. 

453 



454 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



In the reproductions of great works of art — pictures, sculp- 
ture, and vases — a person may get a great deal of that inspira- 
tion given by the originals, and learn to love the better things 
created by master minds. Often a cheap thing appeals at 
first; but a careful study proves that its qualities which are 




Figure 197. — A convenient kitchen cabinet. Note the swivel bins and eUding panel. 



only on the surface, are seen at once and are a disappoint- 
ment to those who look deeper. A few good pictures and a 
few choice articles of bric-a-brac setting off the walls, artistic 
in plain coloring, will make any home a place of rest and 
comfort as well as a place in which to live. 

Home Reading. A family that does not read, or that 
is not provided with good books, is unfortunate. The works 
of many of the great writers are published at prices anyone 
can afford; the cost of newspapers and magazines is reason- 
able. There is no need of not knowing what to buy. The 
librarians of our large schools will gladly furnish lists of suit- 
able books and publications. 

Newspapers should not be given too much prominence. 



THE FARM HOME 455 

Although we owe much to the newspaper, much that is not 
necessary is printed, and reading it wastes time. The great 
events of the day, no matter in what part of the world, are 
generally treated on the first page and should be noted. 
Often a headline will give all a person needs to know, especi- 
ally if it deals with a scandal or a crime or with a subject in 
which he is not concerned. 

Magazines have one page for the men on politics and 
science, one for the women on home and fashion, one for 
the children on subjects they like, and, in addition, the 
general reading. One or more good agricultural papers, one 
of which deals largely in your specialty, dairying, horses, 
hogs, fruit, or sugar beets, is likely to help much. The 
bulletins from your Experiment Station and from the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture at Washington may be had on request. 

As soon as children can understand words, the simple 
nursery tales and fairy stories should be told or read to them. 
As soon as they can understand, the parents can with profit 
read them stories of adventure, of lives of worthy men of 
history, and of the myths of the Greeks, the Romans, the 
Germans, and the Scandinavians. Then let them read 
wholesome stories for themselves. With fiction of the better 
class, biography, history, and travel, and the practical work 
in which all are interested, there need be no unoccupied time; 
young and old will gradually acquire a fund of general in- 
formation that will be wonderfully helpful. 

All members of the household should learn that books 
are sacred things, representing not the money put into them, 
but the thought of the author. Regarded in this way, books 
will be handled with respect. Acquaintance with them will 
have much the same influence that contact with cultured 
people has. Literature, approached and appreciated in 
spirit, will be a constant source of pleasurable and profitable 
information — of culture unsurpassed. The Bible, particu- 
larly, is worthy of continued attention. 



456 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

Home Food. So far as possible the farm should produce 
its own food stuffs. There is no economy in selling to the 
butcher, at a comparatively low price, calves, hogs, and sheep 
on foot, and then buying them back at high retail prices. 

Every farm should have an ice house with a cool room to 
preserve the meat in warm weather. A room six feet square 
or six by eight feet would answer. When not used for meat, 
such a room would be handy for eggs, butter, milk, or cream, 
and for perishable fruits or vegetables. 

Vegetables may be had at all seasons; more peas and 
beans should be used to take the place of meat at times. 
The vegetable cellar each fall should have a supply of 
beets, carrots, cabbage, and celery, in addition to a 
stock of potatoes, apples, and bottled fruit. The storeroom 
should have supplies of dried corn, beans, and peas, besides 
a quantity of cheese. With such supplies, in addition to 
milk, cream, butter, and eggs, the farm home need not envy 
the palace, as it affords all the table luxuries that are neces- 
sary for good living. 

Cost of Foods. Though the kind, variety, and cost of food 
must necessarily be regulated by the size of the income, farm 
folk need not depend very much upon commercially canned 
and commercially bottled goods. The real delicacies and 
luxuries of the table may be provided on the farm, at low 
cost, and with positive pleasure and physical profit. 

Home Amusements. To attempt to get much enjoy- 
ment from attending trifling parties, picture shows, etc., 
that are now so common is not desirable. Life demands 
something of variety, and provision for it is proper, but 
excess amusement readily becomes a kind of intoxication. 

On account of the comparative isolation of farm houses, 
it is desirable that as much amusement as possible be pro- 
vided in the house where there are several boys or girls. 
Good nature and perhaps something of burlesque or mimicry 
will tend to remove part of the irksomeness of the difficult 



THE FARM HOME 457 

and tedious tasks. Let music be encouraged, and games, 
such as checkers, chess, dominoes, and some of the new card 
games, with an occasional party. In fine weather, croquet, 
tennis, ball, swinging, etc., may be adopted for outdoor play 
to good advantage. These, with driving, horseback riding, 
and walking, should give sufficient variety to satisfy any 
one. Care should be taken not to make pleasure the princi- 
pal end, and not to cause some of the family to have all the 
drudgery. 

Health. There is little doubt that a great proportion 
of physical ills comes from careless or immoderate eating. 
More persons die of overeating than from starvation. Per- 
sons who work out of doors, as most farmers do, can assim- 
ilate much larger quantities of food than those who are 
confined indoors. Some growing children and persons recover- 
ing from wasting diseases seem almost unable to get enough; 
but everywhere and to all there is a danger fine beyond which 
ill health is the penalty. 

There may be times, when, for a short period, overwork- 
ing seems positively necessary, as in case of sickness, accident, 
and the rush of seeding or harvesting. At such times good 
sense directs that all do their utmost; but later they should 
take time to recuperate. Sufficient sleep is essential — primal 
— to health. 

Overwork, overeating, and excessive pleasure-seeking are 
forms of moral degeneracy, which are sapping away the 
best in many lives. The physical basis of health, and its 
greatest secret, is moderation. 

Adjustment to Duties. The farm home should be a 
place of faith in one another and of helpfulness. A really 
successful home is a kind of partnership in which father and 
mother are the senior and most responsible members. They 
must have their work and must do it; the children must 
have their work and must do it. None should overwork, 
but none may shirk proper responsibility and toil. 



458 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

As soon as is consistent with their development, children 
should be required to help in some simple way; other tasks 
should be added later. The greatest boon conferred upon 
people is work, and there is no injustice in requiring that all 
do their proper share in the necessary labor. To work and 
to learn that there are trials to bear, is not only a privilege, 
but it is a right that all are entitled to enjoy. 

Since there is not a proper balance in some homes in 
number of boys and girls, the boys ought to learn to cook, 
sweep, wash dishes, and scrub floors; or the girls to milk, 
tend the garden, or help otherwise outdoors. When such 
changes are necessary or advisable, if the young people will 
think of their common dependence upon the different oper- 
ations, there need be no seeming loss of dignity. Any man 
or boy, young or old, who will not help the women when 
their work is pressing or severe, has no proper conception 
of what dignity may follow; and women and girls who say, 
'That is a man's work, and I will not do it," have yet to 
learn that ideal womanhood is based upon a willingness to 
help in the necessary work of life whether directly in accord- 
ance with their own duties or with something else just as 
necessary. With such a conception of the home duties and 
willingness to do even more than one's own part, the home 
becomes a place of joy and satisfaction. 

Home Finances. A very vital matter that must be 
learned early is living within the income. Sometimes hus- 
band and wife have no idea of limiting their wants, and so 
hve too fast financially; but more commonly these two strug- 
gle along, get ahead so as to be comfortably well-to-do, and 
then, as the children learn how money may be used, they 
squander more in a month than the parents saved in years. 
Such extravagance is not justifiable on any ground. Each 
member of the family should have first what is needed — 
afterwards, what is desirable. On the other hand extreme 
stinginess is both unlikable and unprofiitable. 



THE FARM HOME 459 

Such things as household furnishings, vehicles, and live 
stock must be regarded as for the common good. All should 
use wisdom in caring for the common property, in avoiding 
selfishness, and in causing unnecessary work for the others. 
A boy returning with a horse and buggy, has no right to leave 
the vehicle out in a storm, throw the harness down and only 
half care for the horse. In the house and out each should 
take care of what especially concerns himself and thus retain 
his own self-respect and avoid imposition on others. 

Home Rights. In all their association all members of 
the home should maintain courtesy one to another. Proper 
criticism should be accepted as a help, but the spirit of 
faultfinding must not be encouraged or tolerated; nor should 
a feeling of superiority be allowed. Humility, good will, 
industry, faith in man and in all other good agencies, trust 
in God, regard for the wishes and welfare of others, a desire 
to know that is satisfied by intelligent consideration of the 
great questions of the day and of the necessities of their 
general occupations-^these will create the best conditions 
for happiness. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Define with respect to home life: home, house, hfe, luxury, neces- 

sity, amusement, work, play, food, clothing, convenience, neat, 
attractive, gaudy, magnificent, sincerity, sham, harmonious. 

2. Discuss briefly home art. 

3. Why should the home be simple? 

4. How much reading should be done in the home? Discuss the kind 

of reading adapted to the home. 

5. Name good and poor foods for the farm home. The city home. 

The village home. 

6. What is the place of home amusements? 
7: Give several health precautions. 

8. How should the financial problems of a home be handled? 

9. What should be the part of praise, blame, and help between mem- 

bers of a family? 
10. Why should work and play be planned ahead? 



460 WESTERN AGRICULTURE 

EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 

1. Let each student plan the time and place of his chores, school, 

and amusement for a week. 

2. Make a list of inexpensive improvements that would make your 

home, school, and office or library more attractive. 

3. Make some of these improvements. 

4. Write out the ten commandments for a happy and efficient home 

life. 

REFERENCES 

Increasing Home Efficiency, Bruere. 
The Making of a Housewife, Curtis. 
Hygiene Series (5 Vols.), Gurlick. 

a. Good Health. 

b. Emergencies. 

c. Town and City. 

d. The Baby at Work. 

e. Control of Body and Mind. 
The Art of Right Living, Richards. 
Making Life Worth While, Froher. 
Farm Boys and Girls, McKeever. 
Training the Boy, McKeever 

A Montessori Mother, Fisher. 

Home Life in Colonial Days, Earle. 

The Efficient Kitchen Child, McBride. 

Primer of Sanitation, Ritchie. 

Human Foods, Snyder. 

First Lessons in Food and Diet, Richards. 

Farmers' Bulletins: 

No. 185. Beautifying the Home Grounds. 
679. House Flies. 

807. Bread and Bread Making. 

808. How to Select Foods. I. What the Body Needs. 
817. How to Select Foods. II. Cereal Foods. 

824. How to Select Foods. III. Foods Rich in Protein. 

861. Removal of Stains from Clothing and Other Textiles. 

870. The Community Fair. 

904, Fire Prevention and Fire Fighting on the Farm. 



INDEX 



192, 270, 424. 



Aberdeen-Angus, 294. 

Acre-foot, 128. 

Aerobes, 53. 

Air pressure, 61. 

Alfalfa, 126, 138, 141, 152, 192, 255. 

Alfalfa weevil, 287. 

Algae, 37 

Alkali, 77, 148. 

Alkali-resistant plants, 152. 

Alsike clover, 195, 255. 

American saddle horse, 317. 

American trotter, 318. 

Amusements, 456. 

Anaerobes, 53. 

Anconas, 349. 

Andalusians, 349. 

Animals, 55, 289, 297, 313, 326, 333. 

Animals as soil builders, 86. 

Apples, 225. 

Arabian horse, 316. 

Arsenate of lead, 284. 

Art, 453. 

Ash, 361. 

Asparagus, 242, 249. 

Atmosphere, 81. 

Automatic devices, 132. 

Automobiles, 178. 

Ayrshires, 307. 

Babcock test, 390. 
Bacteria. 45, 49, 51, 
Bantams, 350. 
Barley, 126, 185. 
Barns, 408. 
Barn fixtures, 409. 
Beans, 140, 243, 248, 
Beef cattle, 289, 366. 
Beets, 243, 244. 
Beet digger, 176. 
Beet sugar, 380. 
Belgian horses, 322. 
Berkshires, 327. 
Binder, 172. 
Black alkali, 148. 
Blue grass, 198, 255, 259 
Bleaching flour, 385. 
Brahmas, 350. 
Breeds of 

Cattle, 291, 302. 

Hogs, 327. 

Horses, 315. 

Poultry, 345. 

Sheep, 334. 
Brome grass, 126, 198, 255. 
Broncho, 317. 
Brooding, 354. 
Brown Swiss cattle, 308. 
Brussels sprouts, 244, 245. 
Buckwheat, 189. 
Bud protection, 25. 
Bulb crops, 244. 
Bush fruits, 233. 
Butter making, 394. 

Cabbage, 243, 245. 
Calcium, 97. 
Cane sugar, 379. 
Carbohydrates, 16, 360. 
Carbolic acid, 268. 
Carbon, 30, 95. 



Carbon dioxide, 17, 28, 30. 

Care of animals, 370. 

Carrots, 138, 141, 206, 244. 

Cattle, 257. 

Catnip, 249. 

Cauliflower, 243, 245, 

Causes of disease, 370. 

Celeriac, 245. 

Celery. 243, 248. 

Cell. 18. 

Cheese making, 396. 

Cherries, 227. 

Chester Whites, 328. 

Cheviots, 335. 

Chicory, 245. 

Chlorophyll, 28, 97. 

Church, 443. 

Churning, 394. 

Cleveland bay, 320. 

CHmate, 66. 

Clover, 138, 194, 259. 

Clubroot of cabbage, 271. 

Clydesdales, 321. 

Coach horses, 319. 

Coal, 30. 

Cochins, 350. 

CodUng moth, 283. 

Coke, 30. 

Cole crops, 245. 

Collards, 246. 

Commercial gardening, 250. 

Co-operative marketing, 447. 

Copper sulphate, 268. 

Corn, 126, 138, 141, 182, 190, 255. 

Cotswolds, 335. 

Cowpea, 196, 255. 

Cream separator, 393. 

Cress, 245. 

Crops and live stock, 59. 

Crop production. Factors of, 101. 

Crop requirements, 102. 

Crimson clover, 195. 

Crown gall, 274. 

Cucumbers, 243, 248. 

Cucurbitaceous crops, 248. 

Cultivators, 169. 

Cultivation, 119, 121, 123, 125, 152. 

Currants, 235. 

Current meter, 129. 

Dairy cattle, 297, 365. 
Dandelions, 246, 268. 
Devon cattle, 296. 
Dew, 62. 

Digestibility, 361. 
Disease, 51. 
Dipping plants, 343. 
Dipping sheep, 342. 
Disinfection, 375. 
Disposal of carcasses, 376. 
Ditches, 124. 
Dodder, 279. 
Draft horses, 320. 
Drains, 157. 
Drainage, 154, 155. 

Advantages of, 159. 

Clogging of, 159. 

For meadows, 258. 

Plans for, 156. 
Drills, 170. 



461 



462 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



Dry crops, Cultivation, 125. 

Germination, 123. 

Harvesting, 125. 

Soil preparation, 123. 

Sowing, 124. 

Storing and marketing, 125. 
Dry-farming, 113. 
Dry-farm crops, 125. 
Duroc-Jerseys, 328. 
Duties, Home, 457. 
Dwelling houses, 401. 

Egg plant, 243, 247. 
Emmer, 188. 
Endive, 245. 
Energy, 31. 
Enzymes, 17. 
Evaporation, 11, 119, 120. 

Fanning mill, 177. 
Farm buildings, 407. 
Farm community, 436. 
Farm home, 453. 
Farmers' associations, 448. 
Fats, 361, 
Faults, 69. 
Feeding 

Animals, 359. 

Poultry. 351. 
Feet, 374. 
Ferments, 17. 
Fertilization, 20. 
Field peas, 196. 
Finances, Home, 458. 
Flagella, 50. 
Floats, 130. 
Flooding, 143. 
Flour, 379, 384. 
Flowering, 19. 
Foods 

Home, 456. 

Manufacture of, 35. 

Movement of, 35. 

Plant, 33. 

Supply, 95. 
Fruit trees, 142, 218. 
Fruits, 217. 
Fungi, 49, 270, 275. 
Fungicides, 238. 
Furniture, 403. 
Furrow irrigation, 144. 

Gallon measure, 129. 
Galloways, 294. 
Games, 350. 
Geological history, 75. 
Germination, 17, 123. 
Germs, 270, 373. 
Gooseberries, 235. 
Grain crops, 181. 
Grapes, 238. 
Greasewood, 148. 
Green manure, 105. 
Greens, 246. 
Grooming, 375. 
Growth, 18. 
Guernseys, 305. 
Gypsum, 148, 151. 

Hackneys, 319. 
Halophytes, 38. 
Hamburgs, 349. 
Hampshire hogs, 330. 
Hampshire sheep, 335. 



Harrow, 167, 168. 
Harvesting, 125. 
Hay, 197. 
Haystacker. 174. 
Header, 173. 
Health, 440, 457. 
Herbicides, 268. 
Heredity, 375, 417. " 
Herefords, 292. 
History of the earth, 73. 
Hogs, 257, 326, 366. 
Hog houses, 410. 
Holsteins, 303. 
Home, 453. 
Horse-radish, 249. 
Horses, 256, 313, 364. 
Hydrogen, 96. 
Hydrophytes, 37. 

Ice, Action of, 72, 85. 

Improvement of plants and animals, 414. 

Inches of water, 131. 

Incubation, 354. 

Indestructibility of matter, 56, 

Interdependence of plants and animals, 

57. 
Insect pests, 282. 
Iron, 98. 

Iron sulphate, 268. 
Irrigation, 134, 140, 154, 204, 212, 237. 

Jerseys, 302. 
Judging, 

Dairy cow, 309. 

Grains, 189. 

Hogs, 331. 

Horses, 323, 324. 

Kale, 245, 246. 
Kohl-rabi, 245. 
Kutter's formula, 132. 

Lake-formed soils, 78. 

Lakes, 77, 84. 

Lambing, 337. 

Land formation, 75. 

Langshans, 350. 

Leghorns, 348. 

Leguminous crops, 192, 248, 256. 

Leicesters, 335. 

Lenticels, 26. 

Lettuce, 243, 245. 

Light, 29, 423. 

Lime, 45. 

Limestone, 56, 92. 106. 

Lime-sulphur, 285. 

Lincolns, 335. 

Live stock, 59. 

Lucern, 192. 

Lupines, 225. 

Machinery 

Care of, 179. 

Cultivating, 161. 

Harvesting, 170. 

Milking, 178. 

Plowing, 161. 

Seeding, 170. 
Magazines, 454. 
Magnesium, 97. 
Mangfel-wurzels. 206. 
Manure, 104. 
Meat production, 289. 



INDEX 



463 



Marketing 

Dry-farm crops, 125. 

Farm crops, 446. 

Potatoes, 213. 

Poultry, 356. 

Strawberries, 238. 
Measurement of water, 128. 
Mendel's law, 415. 
Mesophytes, 37. 
Microscopic plants, 49, 86. 
Middleman, 447. 
Mildew, 275. 

Milk and its products, 288. 
Milk veins, 297. 
Millets, 199, 255. 
Milling of wheat, 384. 
Mineral matter, 16. 
Miner's inch, 128. 
Minorcas, 348. 

Mint, 249. ^ , ^„ 

Moisture content, Influence of, 93. 
Molds, 49, 270. 
Mountain chains, 69. 
Mountain growth, 76. 
Mower, 171. 
Mulch, 35. 

Muskmelon, 243, 248. 
Mustang, 317. 

Newspapers, 454. 
Nitrification, 51. 
Nitrogen, 96. 
Nodules, 45. 

Oat grass, 255. 

Oats, 126, 138, 184, 190. 

Ocean beds, 70. • 

Oils, 16. 

Onions, 243. 

Organization, 449. 

Orchard fruits, 217. 

Orchard grass, 198, 255. 

Orpingtons, 350. 

Osmosis, 45. 

Overfeeding, 371. 

Ovule, 20. 

Oxford Downs. 335, 

Oxidation, 83. 

Oxygen, 17, 25, 28, 30, 96. 

Parasites, 372. 
Parsley, 245. 
Parsnips, 243, 244. 
Pastures, 253. 
Peaches, 224, 226. 
Pears, 224, 226. 
Pear blight, 272. 
Peas, 140, 248. 
Percherons, 320. 
Peppers, 247. 
Phosphorus, 97. 
Photosynthesis, 28. 
Physiographic forces, 68. 
Picking, 

Bush fruits, 236. 

Orchard fruits, 223. 

Strawberries, 237. 
Plant, The 

And animals, 55. 

And soil, 41. 

And sunshine, 28. 

And water, 33. 

Cell, 18. 



Communities, 37. 

Flowering, 19. 

Fruiting, 20. 

Growth, 18, 140. 

How alkaU affects, 149. 

Life history, 15. 

Microscopic, 55. 

Processes and water, 34. , . ^o 

Relation to temperature and air, 23. 

Soil builder, 85. 
Plant diseases, 270. 
Plant food, 33, 95. 
Plant lice, 286. 
Plows, 170. 

Plowing. 91, 119, 121, 123. 
Plums, 227. 
Poisonous plants, 372. 
Poland Chinas, 327. 
Pollination, 20, 57, 237. 
Potatoes. 126, 138, 141, 208. 
Potato digger, 176. 
Potato scab, 276. 
Potherbs, 246. 
Potassium. 98. 
Poor ventilation, 373. 
Poultry, 258, 343. 
Poultry houses, 351, 410. 
Power on the farm, 177. 
Pumpkins, 248. 
Pumps, 177. 

Purification of water, 427. 
Prevention of disease, 375. 
Protein, 16, 359. 
Protoplasm, 50. 
Pruning, 220, 235. 

Quarantine, 376. 

Radishes, 244. 
Rain, 62. 
Rainfall, 

Distribution of, 109. 

Quantity of, 108. 

Relation to crop yields, 110. 

Value of, 108. 
Rake, 171. 
Rambouillets, 335. 
Rating flume, 130. 
Rations, 362. 
Reading. 454 

Reclaiming alkali lands, 151. 
Recreation, 439. 
Red clover, 194. 255. 
Red Polled cattle, 295. 
Respiration, 26, 30. 
Rhode Island Reds, 350. 
Rhubarb, 242, 249. 
Rice, 189. 
Rights, Home, 459. 
Roads, 429. 
Rocks, . 

Classification of, 68^ 
Formation of, 68, 75. 
Roots, Function of, 44. 
Root crops, 201, 244. 
Roadsters, 318. 
Root systems, US. 143. 
Rotation of crops. 47, 103, ZViJ, zoy, ^oi. 
Rural problems, 436. 
Rushes, 37, 259. 
Rutabagas, 206. 
Rye, 126, 186, 190. 
Rye grasses, 255. 



464 



WESTERN AGRICULTURE 



Saddle horse, 316. 

Sage, 249. 

Sagebrush, 148, 255. 

Saltbush, 148. 

Salt grass, 37, 148. 

Salsify, 243, 244. 

Sanitation, 440. 

Scale insects, 285. 

Schools, 441. 

Score. cards, 189, 309, 323, 324, 331. 

Second-foot, 128. 

Seed 

Amount of vegetables, to sow, 249. 

Composition of, 16. 

Germination of, 17. 

Good, 41. 

Purpose of, 16. 

Structure of, 15. 
Sedges, 37, 259. 
Shadscale, 148, 255. 
Shearing sheep, 341. 
Sheep, 257, 333, 336. 
Shires, 321. 
Shorthorns, 291. 
Shropshires, 334. 
Silos, 411. 
Slime molds, 270. 
Small fruits, 233. 
Smut, 277 
Soil 

And subsoil, 92. 

And the plant, 41, 

Alkali, 146. 

Appearance of, 147. 

Baking of, 92. 

Classification of, 88. 

Dissemination, 58. 

Fertile, 101. 

Formation of, 80. 

Lake-formed, 78. 

Origin and composition of, 146. 

Physical condition of, 43. 

Porous surface of, 155. 

Preparation of, 123. 

Productivity of, 94. 

Texture and structure of, 88. 
Soil water 

Downward movement of, 118 

Extent of, 118. 

Storing and saving of, 117. 
Soil water wells, 157. 
Solanaceous crops, 247. 
Sorghums, 188. 
Source of plant food, 43. 
Southdowns, 334. 
Sowing the crop, 124. 
Soy beans, 196. 
Spinach, 246. 
Spraying, 267, 284, 285. 
Squash, 243, 248. 
Stock-holding, 450. 
Stomata, 26, 29. 
Storing 

Corn, 184. 

Dry-farm crops, 125. 

Fruit, 223. 

Potatoes, 214. 

Vegetables, 244. 

Storage bins, 382. 
Storms, 65. 
Streams, 71 
Strawberries, 236. 



Subirrigation, 144. 

Suffolk Downs, 335. 

Suffolk Punch, 322. 

Sugar, 379. 

Sugar beets, 138, 141, 201. 

Sulphur, 99. 

Sunshine, 28. 

Sweet corn, 243, 248. 

Swiss chard, 246. 

Tamworths, 230. 
Teeth, 373. 
Telephone, 434. 
Temperature, 23, 29, 46, 80. 
Thresher, 173, 175. 
Thoroughbred horse, 216. 
Timothy, 197, 255, 259. 
Tobacco mixture, 286. 
Tomatoes, 243, 247. 
Traction engines, 166. 
Transpiration, 29, 34, 120. 
Turnips, 206. 

Udder, 297. 
Underdrainage, 152. 

Valleys. 71, 77. 
Vegetables, 242. 
Vetch, 196, 255. 
Volcanoes, 70. 

Wagons, 175. 
Water 

And crops, 39, 136. 

Available, 36. 

Effect of surplus, 154. 

Loss of by evaporation, 119. 

Loss of by transpiration, 120. 

Measurement of, 128. 

Quality of, 136. 

Quantity of, 134, 137. 

Relation, 36. 

Running, 83. 

Soil, 35, 117, 156. 

Solvent action of, 83. 

Spreading of, 135. 
Water-cress, 37. 
Water-logging, 36, 155. 
Watermelon, 248. 
Water supply, 425. 
Waves, Action of, 84. 
Weather, 61. 

Weather bureau charts, 64. 
Weather observations, 64. 
Weeds, 262. 
Weed laws, 266. 
Weir, 130. 

Wells, Soil water, 157. 
Wheat 

On dry-farms. 126, 138, 140. 

Score card. 190. 

Yield of. 105. 
White clover, 195, 255, 
Winds, 

Action of, 82, 112. 

Cause of. 63. 
Wyandottes, 350. 

Xerophytes, 37. 
X-ray, 53. 

Yeasts. 49. 
Yorkshires, 329. 



